ONE  HUNDRED  LESSON 

— IN 


AGRICULTURE 

ARETAS  W.  NOLAN 


Row,  PETERSON 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 
LOS  ANGELES 


One  Hundred 
Lessons  in  Agriculture 

with 

Practical  Problems 


By 
Aretas  W.  LNolan,  A.  M. 

Associate  Professor  of  Agricultural  Education, 
West  Virginia  University 


Chicago 
Row,  Peterson  &  Company 


COPYRIGHT,  1911,  BY 
AKETAS  W.  NOLAN 


TO 

MY  FATHER   AND  MOTHER, 

WHO  ALL  THEIR  LIVES 

HAVE  DWELT  AMONG  THE  FIELDS, 

IS  THIS  BOOK  DEDICATED. 


PREFACE. 

The  preparation  of  this  book  is  an  effort  to  combine 
in  convenient  form  the  discussions,  directions  for  labo- 
ratory and  field  exercises,  note-book  work,  and  farm 
arithmetic,  which  the  author  has  found  most  practical 
and  helpful  in  teaching  elementary  agriculture  in  rural 
schools. 

It  has  been  the  aim  of  the  author  to  select  from  the 
vast  field  of  agricultural  knowledge  and  practice  such 
subject-matter,  materials,  and  methods  as  the  teacher 
in  the  one-room  country  school,  in  the  grammar  grades 
of  a  graded  school,  or  in  the  beginning  years  of  a  high 
school,  may  find  easily  practical,  within  the  range .  of 
the  pupil's  understanding,  and  full  of  profitable  inter- 
est and  educational  value.  It  is  a  text-book  and  manual 
combined  for  the  purpose  of  leading  away  from  the 
usual  text-book  method  of  teaching  to  the  method  of 
first-hand  contact  with  the  real  things  of  agriculture. 
The  fields,  the  pastures,  the  groves,  the  orchards,  and 
the  gardens,  are  the  real  text-books, — this  book  is  only 
a  "friendly  guide-post."  If  the  work  is  not  conducted 
by  means  of  real  things,  the  educational  value  is  lost, 
and  the  information  given  not  permanently  retained. 

Many  of  the  lessons  are  followed  by  a  set  of  practical 
farm  problems.  These  problems  have  a  definite  relation 

5 


6  PREFACE 

to  the  subject-matter  which  they  follow,  as  well  as  a 
close  relation  to  farm  life.  Most  of  these  problems  were 
prepared  by  Professor  Hatch  of  the  University  of  Wis- 
consin, to  whom  we  make  grateful  acknowledgment. 

The  lessons  are  arranged  in  the  order  of  actual  farm 
operations  and  interests,  during  a  year  on  the  farm, 
and  the  teacher  in  the  public  schools  may  easily  adapt 
them  to  local  needs,  beginning  with  any  month  of  the 
year.  The  seasonal  sequence  of  subject  matter  in  school 
agriculture  is  both  pedagogical  and  practical.  Illustra- 
tive material  is  easily  obtained,  the  interest  of  the  pupils 
is  at  once  awakened,  and  cooperation  with  the  farm  ac- 
tivities of  the  community  is  natural  and  inevitable. 

THE  AUTHOR. 


SUGGESTIONS   TO   TEACHERS. 

1.  Read  from  other  texts  the  subject-matter  treated 
in  these  lessons. 

2.  Collect  beforehand  the  materials  needed  for  the 
practical  exercises,  and  have  everything  ready  for  the 
recitation. 

3.  Ask  the  pupils  to  assist  in  collecting  the  materials, 
and    have    them    perform    the    experiments    whenever 
possible. 

4.  Make  many  excursions  for  observations  of  farm- 
ing methods.    Bring  the  class  to  the  material  when  the 
material  cannot  be  brought  to  the  class.     But  always 
obtain  permission  from  the  owner  of  the  farm  upon 
which  excursions  are  made. 

5.  Have  a  school  garden  if  possible. 

6.  Write   to   your   State    Agricultural   Experiment 
Station,  the  State  College  of  Agriculture,  and  to  the 
Department  of  Agriculture  at  Washington,  D.  C.,  for 
information,  bulletins,  and  seeds. 

7.  Require  each  pupil  to  keep  a  permanent  agri- 
cultural note-book  in  which  to  write  a  neat  pen-and-ink 
record  of  each  lesson.     The  work  of  recording  the  re- 
sults of  the  practical  exercises  gives  the  pupil  some- 
thing definite  to  do. 

8.  Have  the  lesson  in  agriculture  the  last  period  of 

7 


g  SUGGESTIONS  TO  TEACHERS 

the  day,  and  there  will  be  better  opportunity  for  prac- 
tical work.  Some  of  the  lessons  of  the  text  may  serve 
for  several  school  lessons. 

9.  Relate  the  work  in  agriculture  to  the  home  farms 
whenever  possible.    Make  "home  projects"  the  basis  of 
many  recitations. 

10.  Make  the  "Year  on  the  Farm"  the  work  of  the 
school  year  in  agriculture. 


TABLE  OF  CONTEXTS 

September 
LESSON.  PAGE. 

I. — SELECTING  AND  LAYING  OUT  THE  FARM 13 

II. — FARM    BUILDINGS 17 

III. — MAP  STUDIES  OF  LIFE — A-FIELD 22 

IV. — INSECTS  THAT  INJURE  THE  CKOPS 24 

V. — THE  GRASSHOPPER 27 

VI. — THE  BUTTERFLY 30 

VII. — THE  FLY 32 

VIII.— THE  BUG 34 

IX. — THE  DRAGON  FLY 36 

X. — IHE  BEE 37 

XI. — THE  BEETLE 39 

XII. — PLANT    DISEASES 42 

XIII.— THE  WHEAT  CROP 44 

October 

XIV. — SELECTING  AND  STORING  SEED  CORN 49 

XV. — THE  BEST  CORN  IN  THE  COMMUNITY 53 

XVI. — COLLECTION  OF  FARM  PRODUCTS 56 

XVII. — FRUIT  GROWING 57 

XVIII.— XUT   CROPS 64 

XIX. — CLASSIFICATION  OF  FARM  CROPS 65 

November 

XX. — THE  STOCK  ON  THE  FARM 67 

XXI. — IHE  DRIVING  HORSE 70 

XXII. — THE  DRAFT  HORSE 74 

XXIII.— THE  DAIRY    Cow 78 

XXIV.— THE  BEEF    Cow 81 

XX V.— THE  SHEEP 83 

XXVI.— THE  HOG 86 

XXVII. — FEEDS   AND  FEEDING 91 

XXVIII. — TEST  FOR   FOOD  COMPOUNDS 94 

XXIX. — DETERMINING  RATIONS  FOR  FARM  ANIMALS 95 

XXX. — THE  DAIRY 100 

XXXI. — COMPOSITION  OF  MILK 104 

XXXII. — THE  BABCOCK  TEST 107 

XXXIII.— POULTRY 110 

XXXIV. — A  STUDY  OF  FEATHERS 114 

XXXV.— THE   EGG 116 

9 


10  CONTENTS 

December 
LKHS.-N  PAGE. 

X  XXVI.— FARM   ACCOUNTS 118 

XXXVII. — THE  YEAR'S  ACCOUNT  BY  MONTHS , 121 

\  \  XVIII.— CHOP  RECORDS 122 

XXXIX. — RECORD  OF  A  GOOD  CROP  ROTATION 123 

XL. COMPARISON   OF   AGRICULTURE    PRODUCTS 126 

XI. I. — AN  ASSESSMENT  OF  FARM  VALUES 127 

XLII. — FARM    MACHINERY 127 

XLIII. — AGRICULTURAL  OUTLOOK — WEST  VIRGINIA  AS  A  TYPE 

STATE 129 

January 

XLIV. — COUNTRY  LIFE  CONVENIENCES 131 

XLV. — THE  FARMER'S  READING 133 

XLVI.— SOIL 135 

XLVII. — PLANT  FOODS 143 

XLVIII. — FERTILIZERS 149 

February 

XLIX. — DRAINAGE 158 

L. — FENCES    162 

LI. — KNOT  TYING  IN  ROPES 165 

LII. — A  HOT-BED  GARDEN 167 

LIII. — RURAL  FKKE  MAIL  DELIVERY 169 

LI V. — AGRICULTURAL  SOCIETIES 172 

LV. — THE  GRANGE 177 

March 

LVI. — STRUCTURE  OF  SEEDS 181 

LVII. — GERMINATION  OF  SEEDS  AND  GROWTH  OF  SEEDLINGS  185 

l .  v  1 1 1 . — JUDGING  AND  SCORING  SEED  CORN 191 

LIX. — TESTING  SEED  CORN 197 

LX. — FHE  PLANT  AND  WATER 201 

LXI. — THE  ROOT  SYSTEM  OF  THE  PLANT 205 

LXII. — CLOVER  AND  OTHER  LEGUMES 208 

T.X  I II. — CHOP    ROTATION 213 

LXIV. — SPRAYING  FRUIT  TREES HJl 

LX V. — PRUNING  FRUIT  TREES 221 

April 

LXVI. — GRAFTING  FRUIT  TREES 226 

l. xv 1 1. — PLANT  PROPAGATION  FROM  CUTTINGS 229 

LXVIII. — PHOPAGATION  OF  RASPBERRIES 232 

LXIX. — SCHOOL  GARDENING 2:u 

LXX. — HOME    GABDENING 238 


CONTENTS  11 

LESSON.  PAGE. 

LXXI. — BEAUTIFYING  HOME  AND  SCHOOL  GROUNDS 244 

LXXII. — FARM  FORESTRY 249 

LXXIII. — SPRAYING  FOR  CODLING  MOTH  AND  FUNGOUS  DISEASES.  259 

LXXIV. — PLANTING   CORN 263 

May 

LXXV. — CULTIVATION   OF   CORN 267 

LXX VI. — TILLING   THE   SOIL 272 

LXXVII. — TRANSPLANTING    277 

LXXVIII. — POTATOES 279 

LXXIX. — TOMATOES    283 

LXXX. — PLANT    LEAVES 286 

LXXXI. — THE    FLOWER 288 

LXXXII.— PLANT  STEMS 291 

Julie 

LXXXIIL— WEEDS 295 

LXXXI V. — TRUCK  CHOPS 299 

LXXXV. — THE  VALUE  OF  BIRDS  TO  AGRICULTURE 303 

LXXXVI. — THE  TOAD,  THE  FARMER'S  FRIEND 306 

LXXXVII. — CUTTING  CLOVER  AND  ALFALFA 309 

LXXXVIII. — FIVE  LINES  OF  AGRICULTURAL  IMPROVEMENT 312 

July 

LXXXIX. — ROADS  AND  ROAD-MAKING 314 

XC.— TIMOTHY    HAY 118 

XCI. — PASTURES 321 

XCII. — DRY  FARMING 323 

August 

XCIII. — ALFALFA 326 

XCIV. — BUDDING  FRUIT  TREES 329 

XCV. — No  Two  PLANTS  ALIKE 331 

XCVI. — THE  WATER  SUPPLY 333 

XCVII. — THE  UNITED  STATES  WEATHER  SERVICE 335 

XCVIII. — CONSERVATION  OF  NATURAL  RESOURCES : 338 

XCIX. — AGRICULTURE  AND  EDUCATION 340 

C. — THE  FARM  HOME 342 

.  APPENDIX   NOTES 345 


LESSONS  IN  AGRICULTURE 
A  YEAR  ON  THE  FARM 


SEPTEMBER 

LESSON   I 

SELECTING  AND  LAYING  OUT  THE  FARM 

A  forty-acre  farm. — Let  us  suppose  that  it  is  the 
first  day  of  September,  and  that  we  have  moved  into  a 
new  home  upon  a  forty-acre  farm.  Our  farm  is  square 
— 80  rods  by  80  rods — and  the  buildings  are  located  at 
one  corner  of  it.  We  shall  do  general  farming.  Our 
market  is  five  miles  away,  and  we  have  good  roads.  The 
farm  is  level,  with  the  exception  of  a  V-shaped  valley 
extending  across  it  from  north  to  south,  dividing  the 
farm  into  two  nearly  equal  parts.  This  valley  furnishes 
excellent  drainage  facilities  and  an  abundance  of  good 
spring  water  throughout  the  year.  The  soil  of  our 
farm  is  a  rich,  sandy  loam  for  the  most  part,  above  a 
clay  subsoil,  and  is  in  good  physical  condition.  The 
fields  are  free  from  stumps,  stones  and  waste  places. 

There  is  an  orchard  of  five  acres,  a  wood-lot  of  five 
acres,  and  the  rest  of  the  farm,  with  the  exception  of 
the  valley  running  through  it,  is  tillable. 

13 


14  LESSONS    IN   AGRICULTURE 

The  climate  is  temperate,  ranging  from  zero  to  90 
degrees  above  zero.  The  climatic  conditions  do  not  in- 
terfere with  stock  raising,  and  the  general  healthful- 
ness  of  the  place  is  assured.  The  local  markets,  the 
school  and  church  facilities,  the  character  of  the  neigh- 
bors, are  all  excellent  factors  in  helping  us  to  decide 
upon  this  farm. 

We  shall  be  very  busy  all  the  year,  but  we  shall  find 
great  pleasure  in  our  work.  The  planning,  the  build- 
ing, the  sowing  and  reaping,  and  the  beautifying  of 
our  home  will  furnish  us  interesting  work  for  many 
years;  in  fact,  the  work  will  never  be  finished,  and 
therein  is  the  joy  of  it  all. 

The  month's  work. — September  is  the  month  for 
school  to  begin,  and  the  interests  of  the  farm  will  enter 
largely  into  the  activities  and  lessons  of  the  school. 
Busy  days  are  ahead  of  us.  Very  little  planting  is  to 
be  done  at  this  season,  aside  from  wheat  sowing,  but 
we  are  in  the  midst  of  harvest,  when  we  reap  the 
rewards  of  the  year's  labor,  and  begin  to  plan  for  the 
coming  winter.  The  great  work  of  this  month  is  the 
sowing  of  the  wheat,  and  we  shall  learn  of  this  great 
crop  during  the  month.  The  second  crop  of  clover  is  to 
be  cut  for  seed.  Perhaps  the  wheat  from  the  July 
harvest  has  been  stacked  and  is  to  be  thrashed.  During 
this  month  we  shall  find  many  weeds  on  the  farm  going 
to  seed,  and  these  should  be  cut  down.  The  hungry 
insects  will  continue  their  ravages  and  demand  our 
attention 


SELECTING   AND   LAYING   OUT   FARM 
Practical   Exercises 


15 


1.    Eeport  on  the  Home  Farm 

Make  a  report  in  class  upon  the  home  farm,  using 
the  following  topics: 

1.  Kind  of  farming  done. 

2.  Size  and  shape  of  farm. 


Courtesy  of  0.  J.  Kern. 
FIG.  2.     AT  THE  GROVE  SCHOOL 

3.  Surface  condition — level  or  hilly. 

4.  General  fertility  condition. 

5.  Drainage. 

6.  "Water  supply. 

7.  Advantages  or  disadvantages  of  the  location — 
market,  schools,  neighbors,  etc. 


16 


LESSONS    IN    AGRICULTURE 


8.  Improvements — house,  farm   buildings,  etc. 

9.  Trees  and  landscape  features. 
10.     Climate  and  healthful  ness. 

g.    Map  of  Home  Farm 

Each  pupil  in  the  class  should  draw  a  map  of  the 
home  farm,  showing  fields,  woodlot,  orchards,  gardens 
and  buildings.  Draw  to  a  scale  of  inches.  Write  the 
report  and  draw  the  map  as  the  first  exercises  in  your 
agricultural  note-book. 


FIG.  3.     DIAGRAM  OF  40-AcRE  FARM 


FABM   BUILDINGS  17 

LESSON  II 

FABM  BUILDINGS 

Location. — On  our  farm  we  have  a  good  house,  barn, 
granary,  silo,  carriage  house,  poultry  house,  and  farm 
laboratory.  Attention  has  been  given  to  the  proper 
arrangement  of  these  buildings,  within  themselves  and 
in  relation  to  each  other.  The  barn  and  other  farm 
houses  are  located  back  of  the  dwelling  house,  and  the 
vegetable  garden  is  convenient  to  the  kitchen,  yet  well 
hidden  from  the  front  view  of  the  house.  The  dwelling 
house  is  situated  upon  an  elevation  sufficient  to  afford 
good  drainage,  several  rods  back  from  the  road,  leaving 
room  for  a  pretty  lawn  in  front.  A  drive  leads  from 
the  road  to  the  barn,  passing  through  the  barn-lot,  con- 
venient to  the  side  of  the  house.  A  clean,  dry  gravel 
walk  leads  from  the  house  to  the  barn.  A  silo  is 
attached  to  the  barn,  and  the  granary  is  near  by.  One 
of  the  most  important  out-buildings  on  our  farm  is  the 
silo.  The  importance  of  silage  as  a  feeding  stuff  is 
growing  more  apparent,  but  silage  will  not  keep  well 
in  a  poorly  constructed  silo.  The  silo  must  be  air-tight, 
strong,  perfectly  smooth  on  the  inside,  and  placed  on 
a  strong,  solid  foundation. 

The  farm  workshop. — Every  farmer  should  have  a 
building,  or  a  room  in  some  building,  in  which  he  can 
do  experimental  work  with  plants,  soils,  etc.,  and  in 
which  he  can  do  wood-working,  forging  in  iron,  and 
general  shop  work.  A  shop  well  equipped  with  car- 
penter's tools,  a  forge  and  anvil,  a  work-bench  and  its 


18  LESSONS    IN   AGRICULTURE 

equipments,  would  save  the  farmer  many  dollars  and 
much  time  in  the  repairing  of  his  implements  and 
buildings.  This  same  workshop  might  be  provided  with 
apparatus  for  seed-testing,  fruit-tree  pruning  and  graft- 
ing, soil  testing  and  analyzing,  and  with  various  chemi- 
cals and  apparatus  used  in  experimental  work  with 
plants  and  animals. 

A  room  so  equipped  on  every  farm  would  furnish 
interesting  and  profitable  work  during  the  winter 
months,  and  the  results  of  the  experiments  in  these  lab- 
oratories might  be  profitably  applied  on  the  farm. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  materials  and  furnishings 
that  might  be  useful  in  the  farm  laboratory: 

1.  Work-bench  and  carpenter's  tools. 

2.  Forge    and    anvil,  with    necessary    tools    accom- 
panying. 

3.  Medicine  case  with  drugs  for  animals;  and  chem- 
icals,   such    as    formalin,    sulphuric    acid,    ammonia, 
copper   sulphate,    lime,    sulphur,   lead   arsenate,   paris 
green,     hellebore,     phosphoric     acid,     potash,     sodium 
nitrate,  etc.,  etc. 

4.  Tight  case  for  various  seeds. 

5.  Boxes  of  clay,  •  sand  and  humus  soils. 

6.  Table  for  general  experimental  work. 

7.  Water  supply  and  means  of  heating  the  room. 
The  pupils  and  teacher  may  add  other  materials  to 

the  above  list,  and,  as  a  part  of  the  work  of  this  lesson, 
the  pupils  should  draw  the  ground  floor  plan  of  such  a 
room  as  described  above,  and  indicate  in  their  plan 


FARM    BUILDINGS 


19 


where  they  would  place  the   different   furnishings  of 
the  shop. 

Free  Bulletins,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture 

No.  32.— Silos  and  Silage. 

No.  126. — Practical  Suggestions  for  Farm  Buildings. 

Measurements 
Rules. 

1.  To  find  the  area  of  a  triangle  multiply  the  base  by  one-half 
the  height. 

2.  To  find  the  circumference  of  a  circle  multiply  the  diameter 
by  3  1-7. 

3.  To   find   the  area   of    a  circle  multiply   the   square   of   the 
radius  by  3  1-7. 

4.  The  square  of  the  hypotenuse  of  a  right  triangle  is  equal  to 
the  sum  of  the  squares  of  the  other  sides. 

NOTE:     Make  a  drawing  before  attempting  to  solve  any  of  the 
following  problems. 


PIG.  4.    MODEL  FARM  BUILDINGS 
Problems 

1.  How  many  feet  of  inch  lumber  will  be  required 
to  build  a  pig  pen  six  feet  wide,  four  feet  from  peak 
to  ground,  and  eight  feet  long?  (See  rules  1  and  4.) 


20  LESSONS    IN    AGRICULTURE 

2.  How  many  feet  of  inch  lumber  will  be  needed 
to  board  up  the  gables  of  a  barn  thirty  feet  wide,  the 
peaks  being  twelve  feet  above  the  eaves? 

3.  How  much  lumber  will  it  take  to  cover  a  corn 
crib  with  four-inch  slats,  placed  one  inch  apart,  the 
crib  being  twenty-four  feet  long,  six  feet  wide  at  the 
bottom,  eight  feet  at  the  top,  eight  feet  to  the  eaves, 
and  the  peak  three  feet  above  the  eaves? 

4.  How  long  will  the  rafters  need  to  be  for  this 
crib  if  they  are  to  project  one  foot?     How  many  feet 
of  2x4  rafters  will  be  required  if  they  are  placed  two 
feet  apart? 

5.  How  many  feet  of  2x4  studding  will  be  needed 
if  they  are  placed  the  same  distance  apart  ?    How  many 
feet  of  roof  boards  will  be  required  if  they  are  allowed 
to  project  one  foot  at  each  end? 

6.  How  many  cubic  feet  must  a  bin  contain  in  order 
to  hold  a  thousand  bushels?    Make  a  list  of  convenient 
dimensions  for  such  a  bin. 

7.  How   many   feet  of  two-inch  plank  will   be  re- 
quired to  build  a  cylindrical  tank  fourteen  feet  across 
and  two  feet  deep?    What  will  be  the  cost  of  the  liimlM-r 
at  $30  per  thousand? 

8.  How  many  feet  of  band  iron  will  it  require  to 
make  three  hoops  for  this  tank? 

9.  How  many  feet  of  inch  lumber  will  be  required 
to  cover  the  inner  wall  of  a  "round"  silo  twenty-one 
feet  across  and  eighteen  feet  high?     How  many  feet 
of  two-inch  plank  will  be  needed  for  a  cover?    What 
will  be  the  cost  of  all  this  lumber  at  $25  per  thousand. 


FARM   BUILDINGS 


21 


10.  What  will  it  cost  to  put  a  cement  floor  in  this 
silo  at  10  cents  per  square  foot? 

11.  How    many   2x4   studdings   eighteen    feet   long 
and  placed  one  foot  apart  will  be  required,  and  what 
will  be  their  cost  at  $24  per  thousand? 

12.  What  will  it  cost  for  the  lumber  to  floor  a  barn 
forty  by  sixty  feet  with  two  and  one-half  inch  plank 
at  $18  per  thousand? 


FIG.  5.     BARN  AND  SILOS 

13.  The  peak  of  this  barn  is  twelve  feet  higher  than 
the   eaves.     What   will   inch   lumber   for  sheeting  the 
gables  cost  at  $24  per  thousand. 

14.  The  rafters  are  made  of  2x4,  and  twenty-seven 
inches  long,  placed  eighteen  inches  apart.     How  much 
will  they  cost  at  $20  per  thousand. 

15.  What  will  be  the  cost  of  the  sheeting  for  the 
roof  at  $16  per  thousand  if  the  roof  projects  two  feet 
at  each  end  ? 


22  LESSONS    IN    AGRICULTURE 

16.  What    will    it    cost   to   shingle    this   roof    with 
shingles  worth   $3.25   per  thousand,   laying  them   five 
inches  to  the  weather  and  allowing  for  a  double  course 
at  the  eaves  ? 

17.  This  building  is  placed  on  a  wall  twelve  inches 
thick  and  eight  feet  high.     What  is  the  cost  of  the 
stone  for  same  at  $5  per  cord  ? 

18.  What  will  it  cost   to   fence  a  field  sixty  rods 
long  and  forty-five  rods  wide  with  a  five  wire  fence, 
posts  one  rod  apart,  worth  5  cents  each,  staples  6  cents 
per  pound    (200   to   the   pound),   wire   weighing   one 
pound   to  the   rod,   worth   $4.50   per  cwt.,   and   labor 
amounting  to  $6. 

19.  What  will  it  cost  to  build  a  five  board  fence 
around   the  same   field,   using  twelve-foot  boards,   six 
inches    wide,   and    worth    $16    per  thousand,  posts  5 
cents  each,  nails  and  labor,  $15. 

LESSON  III 

MAP   STUDIES  OF  LIFE  A-FIELD 

School  out-of-doors. — Boys  and  girls  who  have  en- 
joyed the  free  life  out  of  doors  all  summer  may  not 
relish  the  prospect  of  sitting  indoors  during  the  pleas- 
ant September  days  studying  from  books,  while  all  is 
life  and  activity  on  the  farms  without.  Hence  let  us 
begin  by  bringing  some  of  the  life  of  the  farm  into 
the  schoolroom,  and  carrying  some  of  our  school  prob- 
lems out  to  the  farm  for  answer.  The  fields,  the  woods, 
the  roadsides,  the  brooks  and  the  skies  shall  be  our 


MAP    STUDIES    OF    LIFE    A-FIELD  23 

books  when  we  are  out  of  school,  and  we  shall  enjoy 
our  hours  in  school,  telling  each  other  what  we  have 
seen  and  learned  in  the  big  books  of  nature.  In  all 


FIG.  6.     A  Boy's  COLLECTION 

our  study  of  agriculture  let  us  learn  from  real  things, 
and  not  depend  altogether  upon  books. 

Practical  Exercises 

1.     Make  measurement  of  a  tract  of  land  containing 
five  or  ten  acres,  and  draw  a  map  of  the  same  to  an 


24  LESSONS    IN    AGRICULTURE 

accurate  scale.     Place  in  this  map  the  creeks,  springs, 
Iniildings,  etc. 

2.  Collect  bottles  of  the  different  kinds  of  soil  found 
on  the  tract,  and  bring  to  school. 

3.  Make  a  list  of  all  the  useful  plants  growing  on 
the  plot. 

4.  Make  a  list  of  all  the  weeds  or  useless  plants 
known  on  the  plot. 

5.  Make  a  list  of  all  the  domestic  and  wild  animals 
seen. 

6.  Make  a  list  of  all  the  birds  and  insects  observed 
from  time  to  time. 

This  work  may  continue  through  many  weeks,  and 
the  pupils  should  keep  a  neat  and  accurate  record  in 
their  permanent  note-books  of  the  observations  on  their 
tracts  of  land. 

LESSON  IV 

INSECTS  THAT  INJURE  THE  CROPS 

"The  farmer  may  prepare  the  soil  ever  so  well,  he 
may  fertilize  with  the  greatest  of  care,  he  may  culti- 
vate thoroughly,  the  weather  conditions  may  be  favor- 
able, and  yet  he  may  lose  all  or  a  portion  of  his  crop 
through  the  attacks  of  insects  and  the  ravages  of  plant 
diseases."  (Hatch.) 

Extent  of  injury. — Insects  destroy  our  crops  to  the 
value  of  millions  of  dollars.  The  farmer  has  learned 
to,  fight  some  of  these  pests  successfully,  and  yet  too 
little  attention  is  paid  by  the  average  farmer  to  methods 


INSECTS  THAT  INJUEE  CROPS 


of  combating  insects  as  well  as  plant  diseases.  There 
is  much  to  learn  about  insects  before  we  can  hope  to 
control  them  successfully.  We  must  learn  when  and 
where  the  insects  lay  their  eggs,  when  the  eggs  hatch, 
and  into  what  forms  they  develop,  and  what  they  feed 
upon.  Some  people  make  fun  of  boys  and  girls  when 
they  see  them  hunting  and  studying  "bugs,"  but  if 
somebody  did  not  hunt  and  study  bugs,  they  would 
eat  and  drive  us  all  out  of  house  and  home. 

Life  history  of  an  insect. — There  are  usually  four 
stages  in  the  life  history  of  an  insect — the  egg  stage, 
the  grub  or  caterpil- 
lar stage,  the  resting 
or  pupa  stage,  and 
the  full-grown  insect. 
The  egg  is  laid  by 
the  full-grown  insect 
in  the  ground  or  in 
any  part  of  the  plant. 
The  eggs  hatch  into 
what  we  usually  call 
a  grub  or  worm.  The 
grub  of  most  insects 
is  a  great  eater,  and  it  is  in  this  stage  that  much  dam- 
age is  done  to  our  plants.  After  it  has  eaten  and  grown 
fat,  it  hides  itself  and  goes  into  a  pupa  or  resting  stage. 
From  this  pod-like  affair  it  emerges  as  a  full-grown  in- 
sect, ready  to  lay  eggs  and  repeat  the  life  cycle.  Some  in- 
sects, such  as  grasshoppers,  do  not  go  into  the  resting 


SHOWING  GYPSY  MOTH  LARVAE 
ASCENDING 


26  LKS^ONS    IN    ACiKK  ULTURE 

stage,  but  grow  their  wings  as  they  hop  about  in  search 
of  food. 

Feeding  habits  of  insects. — Insects  may  be  divided 
into  two  classes,  according  to  their  habits  of  injury  to 
plants:  the  leaf-eating  insects  and  the  sap-sucking  in- 
sects. These  habits  of  the  insects  furnish  the  farmer  a 
clue  to  methods  of  destroying  them.  If  he  finds  that 
a  certain  insect  is  eating  the  leaves  of  his  plants,  he 
can  spray  them  with  a  poison,  such  as  lead  arsenate, 
and  the  insects  will  eat  the  poison  and  die.  If  the 
insect  that  is  injuring  the  plants  has  a  beak  which  it 
uses  to  suck  the  sap  from  the  tree  or  plant,  without 
eating  the  leaves,  then  the  farmer  can  spray  with  lime- 
sulphur  or  a  mixture  of  kerosene  and  soapsuds,  which 
will  stop  the  insect's  breathing  pores  or  destroy  its 
body.  Directions  for  making  these  mixtures  are  given 
elsewhere  in  this  book. 

The  body  of  insects. — Insects  are  so  called  because 
they  are  "in  sections."  There  are  three  main  sec- 
tions of  an  insect's  body — the  head,  thorax,  and  abdo- 
men. The  head  is  provided  with  a  pair  of  feelers,  a 
pair  of  strong  jaws  (or  a  sucking  tube),  and  two  com- 
pound or  two  simple  eyes.  Three  pairs  of  legs  and 
usually  two  pairs  of  wings  are  attached  to  the  thorax. 
The  abdomen  is  the  back  part  of  the  body,  made  up  of 
segments.  Insects  breathe  through  little  holes  in  their 
sides.  In  the  practical  exercises  which  follow  you  will 
note  all  these  points  of  structures  in  various  insects. 

NOTE.  The  practical  exercises  on  insects  will  be 
given  as  separate  lessons  and  so  numbered. 


THE    GRASSHOPPER  27 

LESSON  V 

1.     THE  GEASSHOPPEE 

General  directions. — In  making  these  practical 
studies  of  insects,  an  example  of  each  of  the  common 
orders  of  insects  will  be  taken  up.  The  pupils  should 
provide  their  own  material,  and  bring  the  insects  to 
the  class  for  study.  The  insect  net  illustrated  below 
will  facilitate  the  catching  of  winged  insects  like  the 
grasshopper,  butterfly,  bee,  etc.  Bottles  and  cans  may 
be  used  to  catch  such  insects  as  the  beetles  and  bugs, 


FIG.   8.     INSECT   NET 

A  hand  lens  to  magnify  the  insect  body  will  be  found 
helpful.  A  sharp  penknife,  a  pair  of  sharp-pointed  scis- 
sors, two  large  needles  mounted  in  wooden  holders,  and 
a  pair  of  sharp  eyes  are  essentials  in  the  study  of 
insects. 

Field  and  laboratory  studies. — In  making  this  study 
of  the  insects,  the  pupils  should  first  draw  a  whole 
body  view  of  the  insect,  and  then  make  such  notes  and 


28  I.KSSONS   i\   .\(!KK  ri/rn;i: 

answer  such  questions  as  arc  asked   in  tlic  lesson  out- 
lines.    Determine  all  answers  from  observation. 

1.  Observe  in  the  field: 
Its  method  of  locomotion. 
Its  protective  coloration. 

Its  enemies.     Its  sounds.    Its  haunts.    Its  food. 

2.  With  the  living  insect,  try  to  find  the  breathing 
spiracle,  just  above  the  base  of  the  middle  legs.    Watch 
the  opening  and  closing  of  the  lips  of  this  breathing 
pore.     Put  a  grasshopper  under  a  glass  and  see  if  it 


J-HB 

KIO.  9.  DIFFERENTIAL  LOCUST — AFTER  SANDERSON 

will  eat' grass  or  leaves.  Perhaps  it  has  spit  "tobacco 
juice"  on  you.  Why  does  it  do  this? .  How  many  times 
the  length  of  its  body  can  it  jump  ? 

3.  In  what  ways  do  the  hind  pair  of  legs  differ  from 
the  others? 

Of  what    advantage   are   the   hooks   and   spines   on 
the  legs? 

Count  the  number  of  joints  on  each  leg. 

4.  Study  the  wings.     How  does  the  front  pair  com- 
pare with  the  hind  pair?     How  are  the  hind  wings 
folded?     By  rubbing  the  upper  and  lower  wings  to- 
gether, the    grasshopper    sounds    are    made.     Make    a 
drawing  of  the  wings. 


THE    GRASSHOPPKR  20 

5.  Study  the  mouth  parts.     These  are  the  most  dif- 
ficult of  all  the  external  parts  to  see.     Find  the  fol- 
lowing parts: 

(a)  The  upper  lip,  a  two-lobed  labrum. 

(b)  A  pair  of  blackish  horny  mandibles,  covered  by 
the  upper  lip. 

(c)  A  pair  of  jointed  maxillae  below  the  mandibles. 

(d)  A  two-lobed  lower  lip,  the  labium. 

6.  The  female  has  at  the  end  of  the  abdomen,  four 
points  called  the  ovipositor.    These  are  used  for  making 
an  opening  into  the  ground  to  receive  the  eggs.    Young 
grasshoppers    are    called    nymphs,   and    resemble    the 
adults  in  every  way  except  that  their  wings  are  unde- 
veloped. 

7.  Count  the  segments  of  the   abdomen.     Observe 
on  each  side  of  the  abdomen  a  groove,  and  just  above 
it  a  row  of  breathing  spiracles.     Observe  the  thin  mem- 
braneous depression  on  the  first  segment  of  the  abdo- 
men.    This  is  supposed  to  be  the  ear. 

8.  Observe  the  eye.     Perhaps  you  can  see  that  it  is 
made  up  of  many  divisions.     The  grasshopper  has  two 
compound  eyes  and  three  simple   eyes.     Try  to   find 
these. 

9.  What    other   insects   belong   to   the    grasshopper 
family?    Are  they  injurious  on  the  farm?    How? 

NOTE. — For  killing  insects,  prepare  a  cyanide  bottle 
as  follows:  Break  potassium  cyanide  into  small  pieces 
and  put  into  the  bottom  of  a  wide-mouthed  bottle. 
Avoid  the  deadly  poisonous  fumes.  Pour  over  the 


30  LESSONS    IN   AGRICULTURE 

pieces  just  enough  water  to  cover  them.  Add  plaster  of 
paris  until  the  water  is  absorbed.  Leave  unstoppered 
until  the  contents  are  dried ;  then  cork  tightly.  Insects 
dropped  into  the  bottle  will  die.  Keep  the  bottle  from 

cl>  iltlren. 

LESSON  VI 

2.     THE  BUTTEEFLY 

Every  country  boy  or  girl  knows  the  white  cabbage 
butterfly,  and  its  associate,  the  sulphur  butterfly. 
With  a  freshly  killed  specimen,  take  up  the  study  as 
follows : 

1.  Make  a  drawing  of  the  whole  body,  showing  the 
characteristic  markings. 

2.  How  many  segments  to  the  body?    What  are  the 
appendages   from   these  segments? 

3.  How  do  the  legs  compare  with  those  of  the  grass- 
hopper ? 

4.  Write  a  descriptive  sentence  about  each  of  the 
following  points  of  the  wings:  Action,  shape,  overlap- 
ping, scale-covering,  and  vein-structure. 

5.  How  many  segments  to  the  abdomen?    Are  they 
like  those  of  the  grasshopper? 

6.  Examine  the  mouth  of  the  butterfly.     Find  the 
coiled  tube  which  it  uses  to  obtain  the  nectar  from  the 
flower.    With  a  pin  uncoil  it  and  note  its  length. 

7.  Answer  the  following  points  on  the  observation 
of  a  live  butterfly : 


THE    BUTTERFLY  31 

(a)  Its  manner  of  flight. 

(b)  The  kind  of  food,  and  the  manner  of  feeding. 

(c)  The  natural  enemies  of  the  butterfly. 

(d)  The  position  of  the  wings  when  at  rest. 

8.  What  is  the  damage  done  by  the  cabbage  but- 
terfly ? 

It  should  be  remembered  that  the  common  toad  is 
the  best  friend  we  have  in  the  garden  to  rid  the  cabbage 
of  this  pest. 

9.  What  is  the  life-history  of  the  butterfly?     This 
question  will  be  asked  in  connection  with  all  the  insects 
we     shall     study ; 

therefore  a  gen- 
eral answer  should 
probably  be  given 
to  make  this  point 
clear.  The  cab- 
bage butterfly  lays 

its  eggs  usually  on 

FIG.   10.     CABBAGE   BUTTERFLY 
the  lower  surface 

of  cabbage  leaves.  They  are  small  and  are  pale-yellowish 
in  color.  These  hatch  into  larva,  the  so-called  cabbage 
worms.  After  the  worms  have  fed  upon  the  cabbage  leaves 
for  some  time,  they  spin  from  their  mouths  a  silken  pod 
around  themselves ;  this  pod  is  called  the  pupa.  The  pupa 
is  usually  found  on  old  fences  or  posts.  In  a  short  time  the 
pupa  ruptures,  and  a  full-grown  cabbage  butterfly  crawls 
out,  dries  its  wings  and  flies  away  to  begin  the  life  history 
of  a  new  generation. 


32  LESSONS   IN   AGRICULTURE 

10.     If  you  can  get  a  moth  compare  it  with  the  but- 
terfly as  follows: 

(a)  Difference  in  the  feelers   (antennae). 

(b)  Manner  of  folding  the  wings  when  at  rest. 

(c)  Time  of  flying,  day  or  night, 
.(d)     Comparative  size  of  bodies. 

NOTE. — Butterflies  and   moths  belong  to  this  order 
of  insects. 


LESSON   VII 

3.     THE  FLY 

1.  Make  a  drawing  of  the  common  house-fly. 

2.  Write  a  sentence  on  each  of  the  following  points, 
based  upon  your  own  observation  of  a  live  fly: 

(a)  The  rapidity  of  the  wing  motion. 

(b)  Its  manner  of  eating. 

(c)  Its  favorite  haunts. 

3.  How  many  wings  has  the  fly?  Look  under 
the  wings  and  try  to  find  the  little  white  knobs,  called 
the  balancers. 

4.  Note  how  rough  and  hairy  the  legs  and  feet  of 
the  fly  are.     Would  they  hold  filth  and  dirt  so  that 
it  could  be  carried? 

5.  How  does  the  abdomen  of  the  fly  compare  with 
other  insects  we  have  studied?     Count  the  segments  of 
the  abdomen. 

6.  The  life  history  of  the  fly  family  may  be  studied 


THE    FLY  33 

easily  in  the  schoolroom.     Expose  out  of  doors  a  bit  of 

lean  meat,  so  that  the  eggs  may  be  laid  upon  it.     The 

blue-bottle  fly  will  lay  eggs  upon  meat.    Fill  a  tin  can 

or   box  with   sand,   and   on   a  chip   in  the  center  of  it 

place  the  bit  of  meat  with  the  eggs  on  it.     Invert  a 

glass  tumbler  over  it,  and  push  the  rim  of  the  tumbler 

down  onto  the  sand  to  prevent  the 

escape  of  offensive  odors.     In  a  few 

hours  the  eggs  will  hatch,  and  in  a 

few  days  the    larva    will    be    fully 

grown.      They    will   probably    crawl 

under  the  chip  to  change  into  pupaB. 

They   may  come  out  soon  as  adult 

flies,  or  they  may  remain  over  winter 

in  this    stage.      The    house  fly  lays    PIG-  n-    THE  FLT 

its  eggs  in  manure  and  filth  and  is  transformed  through 

the  same  stages  of  life  history. 


Rules  Against   Flies 

1.  Flies  are  very  dangerous  in  the  spread  of  disease, 
therefore  we  should  not  allow  any  decaying  organic 
matter  in  which  they  can  breed  to  accumulate. 

2.  If  the  cellar  is  damp  clean    out    the    dark   and 
damp  corners  and  apply  lime. 

3.  Pour   kerosene   into   the    drains   and   also   treat 
with  kerosene  all  waste  materials  not  intended  for  fer- 
tilizers. 

4.  If  the  kitchen  waste  is  deposited  in  large  cans  it 


34  LESSONS    IN   AGRICULTURE 

should  be   removed  at  least  once  a  week.     The  cans 
should  have  covers. 

5.  Kitchen  waste  intended  as  food  for  hogs  should 
be  removed  and  used  daily. 

6.  Haul  out  the  manure  and  spread  it  on  the  soil 
every  day,  or  put  it  in  a  screened  box  to  be  emptied 
over  the  fields  or  gardens  at  least  once  a  week. 

7.  If  inconvenient  to  haul  the  manure  at  short  inter- 
vals, treat  it  with  kerosene  or  gypsum. 

8.  Keep  up  the  work  of  destroying  adult  flies  by 
the  usual  methods,  and  judiciously  screen  against  them. 
Flies  breed  in  filth;  they  are  among  the  worst  agencies 
in  the  spread  of  typhoid  fever,  and  every  means  pos- 
sible should  be  used  to  banish  them  from  our  homes. 


LESSON   VIII 

4.     THE  BUQ 

If  it  is  possible  to  catch  a  two-year  cicada,  some- 
times called  "dog-day  harvest  fly,"  or  improperly,  the 
locust,  this  will  make  the  best  specimen  for  the  study 
of  the  true  bug.  If  none  of  these  can  be  got,  a  squash 
bug  will  illustrate  the  characteristics  of  all  bugs. 

1.  Draw  the  view  of  the  whole  body. 

2.  How  many  wings  are  there?    Note  in  the  squash 
bug  that  the  front  half  of  the  wing  is  horny  and  that 
the  back  half  is  membranous. 

3.  Note  the  triangular  prominence  of  the  thorax  on 
the  back. 


THE   BUG 


35 


4.  Observe  the  mouth  parts.     What  does  the  bug's 
mouth  show  as  to  its  manner  of  eating? 

5.  For    what    kind    of    locomotion    are    the    legs 
adapted  ? 

6.  Find   the   eyes   and    feelers.     Write   a   sentence 
describing  each. 


FIG.     12.     THE     SQUASH     BUG — THREE 
STAGES  OF  INSECT  GROWTH 

^ 

7.  What  is  the  life  history  of  the  squash  bug  and 

cicada  ? 

8.  All  the  bugsjbelong  in  this  order,  together  with 
plant  lice,  tree  hoppers,  scales,  etc. 

"V       '/ 

A,    •', 


36  I.Kssoxs    IN    ACHK  ULTUBE 

This  is  an  injurious  order  of  insects,  and  the  kero- 
sene emulsion  spray  is  tin-  moans  of  combating  in  most 
cases. 

LESSON  IX 

5.     THE  DRAGON  FLY 

Both  dragon  and  damsel  flies  will  have  to  be  caught 
with  a  net.  They  are  usually  seen  flying  about  ponds 
or  streams  of  water. 

1.  Answer  the  following  questions  from  the  observa- 
tion of  a  living  specimen: 

(a)  What  is  their  habit  of  flight? 

(b)  What  is  their  food? 

le-^w    (c)     How  do  the  dragon  fly  and  damsel  fly  differ 

in  habits? 
"*-*• 

(d)     What  is  the  position  of  the  wings  at  rest? 

2.  After  killing  the  dragon  fly  in  the  cyanide  bottle, 
straighten  its  wings  and  legs  and  draw  the  whole  body 
view. 

3.  How  do  the  legs  compare  with  those  of  the  grass- 
hopper ? 

4.  How  many  wings  are  there?     Write  a  descrip- 
tive sentence  about  them. 

5.  Note    the    enormous    development    of    the    eyes. 
What  would  this  indicate  as  to  their  habit  of  life  ? 
Find  the  three  simple  eyes,   and  tell  where  they  are 
located. 

6.  Write  a  descriptive  sentence  about  the  abdomen. 
How  many  segments? 


THE    DRAGON    FLY  37 

7.  Does  the  dragon  fly  have  a  sting? 

8.  The  life  history. — The  eggs  are  laid  in  the  wate&  *\^ 
They  hatch  into  a  nymph,  a  form  resembling  the  adult 
without  wings.     In  this  stage  they  live  in  the  water, 
and  feed  greedily  upon  small  water  insects.     At  this 

stage  they  are  bene- 
ficial in  eating  mos- 
quito larva.  When 
the  nymph  is  fully 
grown  it  crawls  out 
of  the  water  upon 
some  convenient  rock 
or  reed,  fastens  its 
feet  firmly,  splits 
down  the  back,  and 
the  adult  dragon  fly  crawls  out,  dries  itself,  and  is  soon 
ready  to  fly.  The  dragon  fly  is  a  beneficial  insect,  be- 
cause it  preys  upon  other  insects  that  are  pests  to  us. 

LESSON  X 


FIG.  13.     THE  DRAGON-FLY 


6.     THE  BEE 

1.     Answer  the  following  questions  on  the  honey,  or 
bumble  bee,  based  upon  field  observation : 

(a)     "What  kind  of  flowers  does  it  feed  upon? 

Is  it  shy  while  feeding?    Will  it  sting  then?  V 

Does  it  stay  long  at  each  flower? 

What  does  it  gather  from  the  flower? 

Explain  how  it  helps  the  flower. 

How  does  its  manner  of  flight  compare  with 


(b) 
(c) 
(d) 
(e) 
(f) 


that  of  the  butterfly? 


365439 


38  LESSONS    IN    AGRICULTURE 

2.  Kill  the  bee  in  the  cyanide  bottle,  and  make  a 
drawing  of  the  body. 

3.  Note  the  large  body  in  comparison  to  the  wings. 
Do  you  think  that  the  wings  wear  out  easily?     How 
many  wings  are  there? 

4.  Are  the  legs  of  the  bee  all  alike?    Explain. 

5.  Try   to   find   the   mouth   parts  and  the   tongue. 
Write  a  descriptive  sentence  about  them. 

6.  Can  you  see  any  value  in  the  hairy  covering  of 
the  bee's  body? 


Worker.  Drone.  Queen. 

Fio.  14.     THE  BEE 

7.  Find  the  sting  of  the  bee  and  remove  it.     There 
is  a  poison  gland  at  the  root  of  the  sting,  which  pours 
a  fluid  into  the  wound  made  by  the  sting,  causing  the 
painful  sensation  with  which  every  boy  is  familiar. 

8.  Where  does  the  bumble  bee  make  its  nest?  What 
is  it  made  of? 

9.  Life  history. — The  eggs  are  laid  in  the  cells.    The 
second  stage  is  the  worm-like  creature,  the  larva,  lying 
inactive  in  the  cell.    It  must  be  fed,  and  it  is  a  big  eater. 
When  it  is  fully  grown  it  spins  a  silken  cocoon  about 
itself  and  enters  the  next  stage.     The  third  stage  is 
the  pupa.     Here  it  remains  quietly  concealed  within 


THE    BEETLE  39 

its  cocoon,  over  which  the  workers  spread  a  thin  layer 
of  wax,  making  a  cell  of  it.  After  a  time  it  cuts  its 
way  through  the  top  of  the  cell  and  comes  forth  a  fully 
developed  bumble  bee. 

10.  To  this  order  belong  the  wasps,  hornets,  saw- 
flies,  gallflies,  ants,  and  honey  bees. 

NOTE. — If  it  is  desired  to  make  an  extended  study  of 
the  honey  bee  as  an  insect  for  farm  use,  write  to  Mr. 
Frank  Benton,  of  the  Division  of  Entomology,  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C.,  for  his  Bee 
Book  and  other  circulars. 

LESSON  XI 
7.     THE  BEETLE 

1.  Make  a  drawing  of  the  beetle. 

2.  How  many  wings  has  the  beetle  ?    With  a  freshly 
killed  specimen  in  hand,  extend  the  two  horny,  sheath 
wing-covers,   which   meet   by   smooth   edges  along  the 
middle  of  the  back,  completely  covering  the  thin  mem- 
braneous wings  beneath.     Spread  out  all  four  of  these 
wings  and  make  a  drawing  to  show  the  wing  arrange- 
ment. 

3.  Write   a   descriptive   sentence   about  the  mouth 
parts.      Are    they    made    for    sucking    or    biting    and 
chewing  ? 

4.  Write  a  sentence  telling  of  the  size  and  position 
of  the  eyes. 

5.  How  many  joints  in  the  beetle's  leg?     Describe 
the  claws. 


•I" 


LESSONS     |\      \<,KI<  n/ITKK 


6.  How    many    segments    in    the    abdomen?     Com- 
pare the  upper  and  lower  surfaces. 

7.  How  do  beetles  live?     Find  as  many  different 
kinds  as  you  can. 

8.  Life  history. — The  beetle  has  all  the  four  stages: 
egg,  larva,  pupa,  and  adult.     The  eggs  of  the  beetle 

hatch  into  grubs,  wire 
worms,  borers,  etc.  In  this 
stage  they  do  great  damage 
to  the  crops,  trees,  and  other 
vegetation.  From  the  grub 
stage  they  pass  into  a  pupa 
stage  similar  to  all  other  in- 
sects. The  pupas  are  usually 
in  the  ground,  from  which 
emerge  adult  beetles. 

Most  of  the  beetles  are 
very  injurious  insects,  the  tiger  beetles  and  lady  beetles 
excepted,  and,  since  they  are  usually  chewing  insects, 
the  treatment  is  a  lead  arsenate  or  paris  green  spray. 

Free  Bulletins,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture 

No.    38. — Spraying  for  Fruit  Diseases. 

No.    45. — Some  Insects  Injurious  to  Stored  Grain. 

No.    75. — The  Grain  Smuts:    Cause  and  Prevention. 

No.    91. — Potato  Diseases  and  Their  Treatment. 

No.    99. — Three  Insects  Enemies  of  Shade  Trees. 

No.  127. — Important  Insecticides. 

No.  132. — The  Principal  Insect  Enemies  of  Wheat. 

No.  146. — Insecticides  and  Fungicides. 

No.  171.— The  Control  of  the  Codling  Moth. 

No.  172. — Scale  Insects  and  Mites  on  Citrus  Trees. 

No.  196.— The  Usefulness  of  the  Toad. 

No.  212.— The  Cotton  Bollworm. 


a.  Larva,    b.  Adult. 
Fia.  15.     GROUND  BEETLE 


THE    BEETLE  41 

Spraying  Mixtures  for  Plant  Diseases 
(Bordeaux  Mixture.) 

5  Ibs.  unslacked  lime '.  .  .$0.04 

3  Ibs.  copper  sulphate  at  lOc 30 

Total $0.34 

Dissolve  each  thoroughly  in   25  gallons  of  water.      When   both 
are  thoroughly  dissolved,  mix.     Use  wooden  vessels.     Strain -care- 
fully into  spray-pump,  barrel,  or  tank. 
Lime-Sulphur 

1^4   gallons  lime-sulphur $0.20 

50  gallons  water. 

For  Leaf-Eating  Insects 
y<t  lb.  Paris  green  to  50  gallons  water.     Spray. 

Cost   $0.15 

3  Ibs.  arscnate  of  lead  to  50  gallons  water. 

Cost   $0.45 

Asenate   of   lead   sticks   to   the   plant   much   better   than    Paris 
green,  and  is  therefore  more  useful,  especially  in  rainy  seasons. 

For   Sap-Sucking  Insects 

2  gallons   kerosene $0.25 

1  lb.  hard  soap  (1  qt.  soft  soap) 10 

1  gallon  water 

Total  cost $0.35 

Problems 

1.  Suppose  it  takes  two  applications  of  two  pounds 
of  lead  arsenate  each,  and  two  days'  time  at  $1.00  per 
day  to  destroy  the  bugs  on  an  acre  of  potatoes,  how 
many  bushels  of  potatoes  at  50c  per  bushel  will  it  take 
to  pay  for  the  treatment? 

2.  If  one  house  fly  lays  80  eggs  four  different  times  y\ 
during  the  summer,  and  half  of  these  eggs  hatch  female 
flies,  each  one  laying  the  same  number  of  eggs  as  the 
first  fly,  and  so  on  to  four  generations,  how  many  flies 
would  come  from  the  first  fly  during  the  summer? 

3.  P'ind  out  the  average  yield  of  honey  from  hives 
in  your  community,  and  calculate  the  income  from  a 
hive  of  bees  at  the  prevailing  price  paid  for  honey. 


42  LESSONS   IN   AQBICULTUBE 

LESSON   XII 

PLANT  DISEASES 

Injury  and  control. — Perhaps  we  have  noticed  during 
the  summer  that  some  of  the  plants  we  were  interested 
in  grew  sickly  and  died,  in  spite  of  all  the  care  and 
attention  we  gave  them.  We  are  told  by  the  botanists 
that  plants  have  diseases,  just  as  people  do.  Rust, 
blight,  smut,  rot,  and  the  like,  are  the  common  names 
of  diseases  which  afflict  the  plant.  They  spread  from 
plant  to  plant  by  means  of  little  dust-like  particles 
called  spores.  These  spores  float  around  in  the  air  and 
settle  on  healthy  plants.  Here  the  spores  may  grow 
and  injure  the  plant  by  living  upon  its  sap.  They 
must  be  destroyed  or  they  may  kill  the  plant  upon 
which  they  feed.  The  various  diseases  caused  by  the 
spores  are  called  fungous  diseases.  Some  of  the  most 
common  forms  are  the  fire  blight  of  the  pear  and  apple, 
the  smut  of  corn  and  oats,  the  rust  of  wheat,  the  potato 
scab,  potato  blight,  peach  leaf  curl,  apple  scab,  club 
root,  black  knot  of  plum,  brown  and  bitter  rot,  and 
many  other  kindred  varieties. 

As  soon  as  the  diseases  make  their  appearance  in  the 
orchards  or  on  the  crops,  the  farmer  should  begin  his 
fight.  If  the  leaves  of  the  trees  begin  to  dry  up  and 
blacken  with  the  blight,  the  affected  parts  should  be 
immediately  cut  off,  at  some  distance  below  the  blight, 
and  burned.  The  lime-sulphur,  or  Bordeaux  mixture, 
spray  described  in  Lessons  11  and  64,  are  the  spray 
remedies  to  use  on  most  plant  diseases. 


PLANT   DISEASES  43 

Practical    Exercises 

1.     Observation  of  Some  Plant  Diseases 
Bring  samples  of  diseased  plants  to  the  school  and 

fill  out  the  following  outline  as  you  study  the  speci- 
mens: 


Common   Names   of   the   Diseases. 

Plants  Affected. 

Remedy. 

2.     Treating  Oats  for  Smut 

Bring  a  half  bushel  of  oats  to  school  in  a  "gunny- 
sack."  Soak  the  oats,  sack  and  all,  for  about  ten 
minutes  in  a  vessel  holding  ten  gallons  of  water,  to 
which  has  been  added  one-fourth  pint  of  formaldehyde 
(40  per  cent).  Then  spread  the  oats  out  to  dry.  The 
formaldehyde  kills  the  spores  of  the  smut  that  are  on 
the  oats,  and  the  crop  coming  from  this  treated  seed 
will  be  free  from  the  disease.  It  would  be  a  good 

service  to  the  farmers  if  the  school  would  treat  all  the 

* 

seed  oats  in  the  community. 

Problems 

1.  Suppose  it  takes  200  gallons  of  Bordeaux  mixture 
to  spray  an  acre  of  potatoes.    What  is  the  cost  of  the 
mixture?    (See  Lesson  11.) 

2.  Suppose   it   takes  two   applications  to   cure  the 
blight   and    each    application    requires    a    day's    time, 
worth  $1.00.    What  is  the  cost  of  the  cure? 

3.  How   many  bushels  of  potatoes,   at  50  cents   a 
bushel,  will  it  take  to  pay  the  cost  of  this  spray? 


44  LESSONS    IN    AQRICULTUEE 

4.  Suppose  two  fields  of  potatoes  of  an  acre  each, 
owned  by  different  farmers.     One   farmer  sprays  to 
cure  the  blight,  and  gets  188  bushels  of  potatoes,  worth 
50  cents  per  bushel.     The  other  neglects  his  field  and 
gets  but  75   bushels.     What  is  the   difference  in  the 
value  of  the  two  crops? 

5.  What  did  it  cost  the  first  farmer  to  apply  the 
spray  ?    What  is  his  actual  gain  over  the  other  farmer  ? 
Did  it  pay  to  spray? 

6.  If  formaldehyde  costs  50  cents  per  pint,  and  a 
pint  will  treat  40  bushels  of  oats,  how  much  will  it 
cost  per  acre  to  treat  the  seed  oats,  sowing  three  bush- 
els to  the  acre  ? 

7.  Suppose  it  takes  a  day's  work,  worth  $1,  to  treat 
the  seed  for  12  acres,  what  is  the  total  cost  of  the  treat- 
ment? 

8.  How    many   bushels   of   oats,    at    30   cents   per 
bushel,  will  it  take  to  pay  for  the  treatment?    Suppose 
the  treatment  increased  the  yield  20  bushels  per  acre, 
how  much  does  the  farmer  gain  on  his  crop  ? 


LESSON  XIII 

THE  WHEAT  CHOP 

General  cultural  requirements. — Wheat  has  been 
cultivated  from  the  earliest  times.  The  crop  ranks  third 
in  value  in  the  United  States.  It  grows  in  cool,  tem- 
perate, and  warm  climates,  and  in  many  kinds  of  soil. 
It  does  best  in  clay  loam,  and  poorest  in  sandy  loam. 


WHEAT    CROP  45 

The  soil  must  be  well  drained,  and  in  a  good  physical 
condition — that  is,  it  must  be  open,  crumbly,  and  mellow. 
Hard  clay  soils  can  be  made  valuable  for  wheat  by  iim- 
nuring,  by  good  tillage,  and  by  crop  rotation.  Cow  peas 
or  red  clover  make  a  valuable  crop  to  precede  wheat  ?  for 
they  add  nitrogen  to  the  soil,  loosen  it,  allow  free  circu- 
lation of  air,  and  add  humus  to  the  soil  when  plowed 
under. 


FIG. 


FIELD  IN  SHENANDOAH  VALLEY 


Soil  preparation. — The  method  of  preparing  the  soil 
for  wheat  will  depend  on  the  previous  crop  and  the  na- 
ture of  the  soil.  Where  wheat  is  to  be  sown  in  standing 
corn,  the  most  practical  soil  preparation  consists  in  thor- 
ough cultivation  of  the  corn  crop,  keeping  the  soil  mellow 
and  free  of  weeds  throughout  the  summer.  It  is  much 
better  to  cut  off  the  corn  and  thoroughly  disk  and  harrow 
the  ground  before  drilling  the  wheat.  Wheat  requires  an 
ideal  seed  bed  and  a  firm  sub-soil. 

Seeding  the  wheat. — The  time  to  sow  wheat  in  the 


46  LESSONS   IN   AGRICULTURE 

central  states  varies  from  the  second  week  in  September 
to  the  first  week  in  October.  On  account  of  the  Hessian 
fly  it  is  advisable  to  sow  wheat  as  late  as  possible.  The 
seed  drill  is  the  best  implement  for  sowing  wheat.  The 
amount  of  seed  per  acre  required  to  get  the  best  results 
depends  upon  a  number  of  conditions,  such  as  the  fer- 
tility of  the  soil,  the  condition  of  the  seed  bed  as  to 
fineness  and  moisture,  and  the  size  and  quality  of  the 
seed  used.  With  medium-sized  seed  of  good  quality  on  a 
well  prepared  fertile  soil,  six  pecks  per  acre  will  usually 
be  sufficient. 

The  selection  of  good  seed  is  an  important  means  of 
increasing  the  yield  of  wheat.  Seed  should  be  selected 
from  the  best  portions  of  the  crop,  graded  and  cleaned 
in  such  a  way  as  to  get  the  largest  and  plumpest  grains 
for  sowing.  In  Indiana,  the  highest  yielding  varieties 
of  wheat  are  the  Ruby,  Pearl's  Prolific,  Michigan  Amber, 
Farmer's  Friend,  and  Abundance. 

Feeding  the  wheat  crop. — Wheat  responds  to  the 
use  of  fertilizers  more  readily  than  most  of  the  ordinary 
crops.  A  study  of  the  crop  will  show  what  sort  of  fer- 
tilizer is  needed.  If  the  straw  is  inferior  and  short,  the 
soil  may  be  deficient  in  nitrogen;  but  if  the  straw  be 
luxuriant  and  the  heads  small  and  poorly  filled,  the  soil 
may  contain  too  little  phosphoric  acid  and  potash. 

Purdue  Experiment  Station  recommends  for  wheat  the 
application  at  seeding  time  of  about  300  pounds  per  acre 
of  a  fertilizer  containing  two  per  cent  nitrogen,  eight 
available  phosphoric  acid,  and  two  to  four  per  cent  pot- 
ash. If  the  farmer  wishes  to  mix  his  own  fertilizer  and 


WHEAT   CROP  47 

thus  save  several  dollars  per  ton,  200  pounds  per  acre 
of  the  following  mixture  is  advised :  900  pounds  steamed 
bone  meal,  300  pounds  high  grade  acid  phosphate,  and 
200  pounds  muriate  of  potash.  These  may  be  purchased 
from  fertilizer  companies  and  can  be  easily  mixed  with 
a  shovel  on  the  barn  floor. 

The  average  yield  for  wheat  in  the  United  States  is 
but  little  over  thirteen  bushels  per  acre.  In  view  of  the 
fact  that  the  acreage  of  wheat  is  decreasing,  and  the 
population  of  the  country  increasing,  there  is  occasion  for 
alarm  over  the  future  bread  supply.  The  future  wheat 
supply  must  come,  not  so  much  from  increased  acreage, 
as  from  increased  production  per  acre. 

Practical  Exercises 
1.     Study  of  the  Wheat  Plant. 

Take  a  walk  into  a  wheat  field.  Note  whether  the 
stand  is  good.  Is  there  a  luxuriant  growth  of  stem  ?  Have 
the  heads  filled  out  well  ?  PulJ  up  a  single  wheat  plant, 
root  and  stem.  Take  several  wheat  plants  and  a  hand- 
ful of  wheat  into  the  schoolroom.  Make  a  drawing  of 
the  wheat  and  its  root  system.  Separate  your  handful 
of  wheat  grains  into  two  piles — one  containing  the 
plump,  large  seeds,  and  the  other,  the  smaller,  inferior 
seeds. 

£.     The  Stooling  Habit  of  Wheat 

Plant  a  few  wheat  seeds  in  pots  in  the  schoolroom,  and 
after  they  have  grown  into  stems  and  begun  to  fall  over, 
dig  out  a  few  of  the  plants  without  breaking  off  many 
of  the  roots.  Volunteer  wheat  may  be  found  growing 


48  I.KSSMNS    IN    AGRICULTURE 

in  the  lirlds.  Try  to  find  tin-  jrniiii  i'n.in  \vhi.-h  the  plant 
started.  Kind  the  first  Joint. 

Do  VIMI  liud  more  than  one  plant  starting  from  this 
joint? 

All  hut  the  central  one  of  these  are  stools. 

Do  the  stools  seem  to  he  as  strong  as  the  central  plant? 

Does  the  thickness  of  the  stand  seem  to  have  anything 
to  do  with  the  amount  of  stooling  ? 

Is  the  stooling  greater  in  rich  soil  or  in  poor  soil? 

Is  a  large  amount  of  stooling  desirable  ?    Why  ? 

3.    A  Visit  to  the  Mill 

If  practicable,  visit  some  mill  to  see  how  the  flour  is 
made.  Write  a  paragraph  describing  your  visit. 

Problems 

1.  How  much  wheat  will  we  have  on  our  farm  at  30 
bushels  per  acre?    What  will  it  be  worth  at  the  prevail- 
ing price  ? 

2.  Calculate  what  it  will  cost  to  raise  this  crop  at  the 
present  price  of  labor  and  seed  and  fertilizer.     What 
will  be  our  profit  ? 

3.  At  the  price  of  flour,  will  it  pay  the  forty-acre 
farmer  to  raise  wheat,  or  buy  the  flour  ? 

References:  The  Cereals  in  America. — Thos.  Hunt.  How  the 
World  is  Fed. — Industrial  Reader,  Carpenter.  Circular  23,  Purdue 
Experiment  Station,  Lafayette,  Ind. 


OCTOBER 

On  the  Farm. — While  the  trees  are  preparing  for  win- 
ter, shedding  their  beautifully  colored  leaves,  we  too 
must  prepare  for  the  winter,  by  filling  our  barns,  cel- 
lars, and  granaries  with  the  grains  and  fruits  of  our 
fields.  After  the  silo  is  filled,  we  shall  cut  and  shock  a 
part  of  our  corn,  but  the  greater  part  we  shall  husk 
and  leave  the  fodder  in  the  field  for  ' '  stalk  pasture. ' '  Our 
apples  will  be  piled  in  cool  places  until  time  to  store 
in  the  cellar.  We  shall  have  pumpkins  to  gather,  po- 
tatoes to  dig,  sauerkraut  and  cider  to  make,  and  fall 
vegetables  to  store  away.  If  there  are  any  more  shrubs 
and  trees  to  plant  on  the  farm,  October  is  a  good 
month  for  this  work.  Of  course,  we  shall  set  some 
hyacinth,  tulip,  daffodil,  and  crocus  bulbs  for  early 
spring  flowers. 

LESSON  XIV 

SELECTING  AND    STORING    SEED   COEN 

The  good  farmer  in  husking  his  ^corn  will  have  by 
him  a  special  box  or  basket  into  which  he  can  throw 
ears  of  corn  selected  from  the  stalk  for  next  year's 
seed  corn. 

Position  of  ear  on  stalk. — The  first  point  to  notice  in 
selecting  an  ear  for  seed  is  its  position  on  the  stalk. 
The  ear  should  be  set  about  midway  up  the  stalk,  not 

49 


50  LESSONS   IN    AGRICULTURE 

too  near  the  bottom  nor  too  near  the  top.  The  shank 
that  holds  the  ear  should  not  to  be  too  long,  so  that  it 
holds  the  ear  far  from  the  stalk.  On  the  other  hand,  it 
should  not  be  so  short  that  it  causes  the  ear  to  stand 
upright  against  the  stalk.  The  stalk  should  be  of 
medium  size,  strong'  and  tapering  with  strong  brace 
roots  and  plenty  of  leaves. 

Shape  of  ear. — The  next  point  to  observe  is  the  gen- 
eral shape  and  development  of  each  ear  selected.  For 
the  first  selection  of  the  corn  in  the  field  be  governed 
by  the  following  points: 

1.  Length  of  ear,  between  eight  and  ten  inches. 

2.  Circumference    of   the    ear,    about    three-fourths 
the  length. 

3.  Rows  of  kernels,  straight  and  running  well  out 
to  the  tip  and  butt  of  the  ear.     Kernels  well  shaped, 
firmly  set  in  place,  deeply  dented  and  all  of  the  same 
purity  of  color. 

Governed  by  these  points  in  the  field  selection  of  ears, 
the  farmer  may  select  more  corn  than  is  really  needed 
for  his  seed,  so  that  a  closer  selection  and  grading  may 
be  made  in  the  spring  before  planting. 

Storing  seed  corn. — In  storing  the  corn,  it  should 
either  be  hung  by  the  husks  torn  back  from  the  ear, 
or  be  placed  in  racks  made  of  narrow  strips  with  spaces 
between.  Whatever  the  device  used  to  store  the  corn 
may  be,  it  should  provide  for  free  circulation  of  air 
about  the  ears,  and  a  dry,  cool  place,  protected  from 
mice,  rats  and  poultry. 

The    scoring,    judging,    and    final    testing     and    se- 


SELECTING  AND  STORING  SEED  CORN     51 

lection  of  seed  corn  are  treated  in  the  lessons  for 
March,  but  if  desired  may  be  taken  up  in  the  schools 
at  this  time ;  in  which  case  it  would  be  advisable  to  re- 
peat them  in  the  spring. 

Practical  Exercises 
1.     Observational  Study  of  Stalks  of  Corn 

Bring  a  half  dozen  stalks  of  corn  into  the  school- 
room.   Let  each  stalk  have  its  roots,  leaves,  ears  and  all 


FIG.  17.     REID'S  YELLOW  DENT 

complete.     Make  notes  of  your  observations  of  each 
stalk  on  the  following  points: 

1.  Leaf  growth. 

2.  Size  and  vigor  of  stalk. 

3.  Brace  roots. 


52  LESSONS    IN    AGRICULTURE 

4.  Height  of  ear. 

5.  Length  of  shank. 

6.  Ear — good  or  poor  type. 

Reference:     F;irm<Ts'  Rnlletin.  No.  '2'_'9. 

g.    Selecting  the  Seed  Corn  in   the  Field 

Go  to  a  corn  field  in  the  vicinity  of  the  school  and 
select  at  least  fifty  desirable  stalks  of  corn  bearing  the 
ears  as  explained  in  the  discussion  above.  First  select 
the  strong,  medium-sized,  stocky  stalks  having  the  ears 
properly  located  and  bending  from  the  stalk.  Husk 
enough  of  the  ear  to  see  whether  the  other  points  of 
selection  mentioned  as  (1),  (2),  (3)  above,  are  up  to  a 
good  standard.  Husk  ten  or  twelve  ears  and  take  them 
to  the  schoolroom  for  further  study. 

If  it  is  not  practical  to  go  to  a  corn  field,  a  dozen 
or  more  stalks  of  corn  should  be  brought  into  the  school- 
room for  a  study  of  the  points  in  field  selection  of  seed 
corn.    Make  notes  criticizing  the  stalks. 
3.     Storing  Seed  Corn 

Construct  a  swinging  shelf  in  the  attic  of  the  school- 
room by  means  of  four  wires  and  a  board  about  six 
feet  long  by  one  foot  wide.  Lay  the  corn  you  have  se- 
lected for  seed  on  this  shelf,  cording  it  up  like  wood  sev- 
eral layers  deep.  Such  a  swinging  shelf  may  be  made 
in  the  barn  or  crib  at  the  farm,  and  several  bushels 
of  seed  corn  stored  upon  it. 

4.     Selecting  Exhibition  Corn 

Arrange  for  an  exhibit  day  as  a  practical  lesson  under 
this  topic.  Each  pupil  should  bring  ten  of  the  best  ears 


SELECTING  AND  STORING  SEED  CORN      53 

of  corn  he  can  select  from  the  home  crop.  One  very 
important  thing  in  choosing  corn  for  an  exhibit  is  the 
principle  of  uniformity.  In  order  to  get  a  high  rating 
on  an  exhibit,  all  the  ears  in  the  set  must  look  alike  as 
nearly  as  possible.  Pick  out  the  best  ten  ears  you  can 
find,  which  by  careful  measurement  and  comparison 


FIG.  18.  DRYING  RACK  FOB  SEED  COEN 

4 

are  nearest  alike.  Arrange  all  the  exhibits  which  are 
brought  to  school,  so  as  to  show  them  to  the  best  ad- 
vantage. See  the  lesson  on  corn  judging  and  scoring. 
Have  some  outside  person  judge  the  corn,  invite  the 
parents  in,  award  prizes,  talk  corn,  and  make  a  great  day 
of  the  corn  exhibit.  Save  the  ten  ears  that  won  first 
prize  and  bring  them  to  the  county  and  state  corn  shows. 


54  LESSONS    IN    AGRICULTURE 

5.     Field  Studies  of  the  Com 

With  note-book,  pencil,  and  rule,  go  to  the  corn  field, 
and  answer  from  observations  the  following  points: 

1.  Name  of  the  variety  of  corn. 

2.  Date  the  corn  matures. 

3.  Average  height  of  corn. 

4.  Average  number  of  leaves  on  a  corn  stalk;  the 
number  of  joints. 

5.  Length  of  ear  shank  on  an  average  of  ten  plants. 

6.  Husks ;  abundant  or  scarce ;  close  or  loose. 

7.  Number  of  corn  plants  on  an  acre  (10  rods  x  16 
rods). 

8.  Average  height  of  ears  from  the  ground. 

9.  The  number  of  ears  of  corn  on  the  acre  measured ; 
the  number  of  bushels  on  the  acre. 

6.     Study  of  an  Ear  of  Corn 

With  an  ear  of  corn  on  the  desk  before  you,  describe 
it,  using  the  following  outline: 

1.  Name  of  the  variety. 

2.  Color  of  grain  and  cob. 

3.  Surface,  smooth  or  rough. 

4.  Rows  of  kernels;  number,  straightness,  spacing, 
and  completeness. 

5.  Grains,  firm  or  loose. 

6.  Shape  of  the  ear. 

7.  Butt;  even,  shallow  or  deep. 

8.  Tip;  exposed  or  covered,  nature  of  kernel  at  tip. 

9.  Kernels;  square  or  rounded  at  top,  shoe-peg  or 
rounded  form. 


SELECTING  AND  STORING  SEED  COEN 


55 


10.  Length  and  circumference  of  the  ear. 

11.  Weight  of  ear,  of  kernels,  and  of  cob;  per  cent 
of  grain. 

12.  Number  of  kernels  on  the  ear. 

Problems 

1.  The  corn  crop  for  the  last  five  years  in  the  United 
States  has  been  over  2,500,000,000  bushels  a  year.    How 
much  is  that  for  each  person  in  the  United  States  ? 

2.  What  is  the  value  of  this  corn  at  the  prevailing 
price  ? 

3.  How  much  corn  was  grown  in  your  state  last 
year?    What  was  the  yield  per  acre?     (See  Year  Book 
of  the  Department  of  Agriculture.     If  the  school  does 
not  have  the  latest  copy,  apply  to  your  member  of  Con- 
gress.) 


LESSON  XV 

THE  BEST  CORN  IN  THE  COMMUNITY 
Practical  Exercises 

Let  each  pupil  weigh  out  one  bushel  of  corn  in  the 
ear  at  home,  and  bring  the  weights  to  school.  Then  each 
one  copy  the  weights  and  data  of  all  the  others,  and 
tabulate  the  results  as  follows : 


Pupils  ' 
Names. 

Weight  of 
Bushel. 

No.  of  Ibs. 
Overweight. 

Per  cent 
Overweight. 

Lbs.  of 
Underweight. 

Variety. 

56  LESSONS    IN    AGRICULTURE 

Problems 

1.  How  much  should  we  expect  to  gather  from  our 
ten-acre  lot  of  corn  as  shown  in  Lesson  I,  and  what  is 
it  worth  at  the  present  price? 

2.  How  many  ears  of  corn  will  it  take  to  make  a 
bushel  ? 

3.  How  many  bushels  of  corn  in  a  wagon  box  10 
feet  long,  3  feet  wide,  and  27  inches  deep,  filled  to  round- 
ing and  gauged  by  bushel  measure  12x12x27  inches? 

4.  How  many  bushels  of  corn  in  a  bin  10  feet  long, 
10  feet  wide,  and  10  feet  high,  using  the  same  gauge? 

LESSON  XVI 

COLLECTION  OF   FAEM  PRODUCTS 
Practical  Exercises 

Try  to  get  small  bundles  of  each  of  the  grains  raised 
in  the  community,  viz.,  wheat,  oats,  rye,  corn,  cowpeas, 
clover,  and  any  other  crop  raised  for  its  seed.  Pupils 
should  each  bring  a  few  culms  of  these  and  a  collec- 
tion will  soon  be  made.  Each  bundle  should  be  labeled  as 
follows : 

Name  of  plant.  Date  of  collection.  Name  of  collector. 
The  collection  should  be  accompanied  by  samples  of  the 
mature  seed,  put  up  in  bottles  of  uniform  size,  and 
labeled  as  above. 

All  the  grasses  and  clovers  used  as  hay  may  be  col- 
lected in  the  same  way.  Arrange  the  exhibit  on  the  wall 
or  in  a  frame  in  as  artistic  a  manner  as  possible. 

A  day  could  be  set  apart  when  the  fruits  and  vege- 


21 

I 


< 

X 


FRUIT    GROWING  57 

tables,  as  well  as  the  farm  products  of  the  neighborhood, 
can  be  exhibited.  Awards -and  prizes  might  be  offered, 
thus  making  the  school  a  new  center  of  interest  in  the 
community. 

As  much  of  the  collection  as  can  be  made  permanent 
should  be  made  so  and  kept  at  the  school  during  the 
term. 

The    collection    and    arrangement    of    this    material 


FIG.  19.     A  WEST  VIRGINIA  CORN  EXHIBIT 

will  furnish  a  valuable  lesson,  and  give  opportunity  to 
develop  skillful  exhibitors. 

A  farm  product  show  would  be  an  excellent  activity 
for  the  boys  and  girls  of  the  agricultural  society  men- 
tioned in  a  later  lesson. 

LESSON  XVII 

FRUIT  GEOWING 

Interest  in  fruit. — During  October  it  is  easy  to  be 
interested  in  fruit,  both  in  the  planting  and  the  har- 
vesting. It  is  easy  to  resolve,  when  one  sees  the  splendid 


;,S  LESSONS    IX    AGRICULTURE 

harvest  of  apples,  peaches,  and  other  fruits  ripening  in 
the  autumn  in  our  neighbors'  orchards,  to  share  in  this 
bounty  by  planting  fruit  trees  on  our  own  farms.  And 
this  is  a  commendable  resolution,  for  fruit  is  a  most 
wholesome  food,  ttnd  the  demands  for  it  in  the  markets 
of  the  world  are  annually  increasing. 

Extension  of  orchards.— Many  hillsides  and  rolling 
fields,  poorly  adapted  to  grain  culture  would  produce 
profitable  orchards  of  apples,  peach,  cherry,  or  smaller 


FIG.  2( 


M. 


IERX   METHODS  IN  ORCHARD  CULTIVATION 

fruits.  It  would  be  better  for  the  soils  of  many  farms, 
and  for  the  purses  of  many  farmers,  were  their  hillsides 
planted  to  fruit  trees  rather  than  to  grain,  for  in  the 
former  case  the  harvest  will  be  barrels  of  fruit,  while 
in  the  latter  it  is  too  often  scattered  grain  and  weeds 
in  a  badly  washed  and  gullied  field. 


FRUIT    GROWING  59 

Setting  and  caring  for  the  orchard. — For  various 
reasons  which  we  shall  not  discuss  here,  the  young  or- 
chard should  be  set  on  high,  rolling  land.  After  a  site 
has  been  chosen,  the  land  should  be  prepared  as  thor- 
oughly as  for  a  corn  crop.  If  it  is  not  practical  to  plow 
the  ground,  large  holes,  about  four  feet  in  diameter  and 
two  feet  deep,  should  be  dug  for  places  in  which  to  set 
the  little  trees.  It  is  best  to  buy  trees  at  least  one  or  two 
years  old  for  planting.  During  this  month  the  fruit 
trees  may  be  set.  Follow  the  principles  of  planting  dis- 
cussed in  Lesson  72,  and  mulch  the  trees  well  with  strawy 
manure  as  they  go  into  the  winter. 

Apple  trees  should  be  set  about  forty  feet  apart  each 
way,  and  peach  trees  from  eighteen  to  twenty  feet  apart. 
They  may  be  set  in  squares  or  in  triangles.  The  trian- 
gular arrangement  will  give  more  trees  to  the  acre. 

Just  as  the  young  forest  described  in  Lesson  72  is 
plowed  in  the  spring,  so  should  the  young  fruit  orchard 
be  cultivated,  if  possible.  After  cultivating  the  fruit 
orchard  until  the  middle  of  June,  it  should  then  be  sown 
to  a  clover  or  cow  pea  crop,  which  would  act  as  a  winter 
mulch  for  that  season.  Such  care,  together  with  the 
pruning  and  spraying  that  is  discussed  later,  will  start 
the  young  orchard  well  on  the  way  to  fruitfulness. 

The  fruits. — The  trees  may  be  divided  into  pome  and 
stone  fruits.  The  apple,  pear,  and  quince  are  called 
pomes,  because  they  contain  a  core  in  which  are  the 
seeds.  The  cherry,  plum,  peach,  prune,  and  apricot  are 
called  stone  or  drupe  fruits,  because  the  seed  is  enclosed 
in  a  hard  stony  shell.  The  grape  is  our  only  vine  fruit. 


60 


LESSONS    I.\     \i;Ki<  ri.YI  l;i: 


Of  the  small  fruits  the  currant,  gooseberry,  raspberry, 
blackberry,  and  dewberry,  are  co^nmonly  called  the  bush 
fruits  from  their  habit  of  growth.    The  strawberry  is  a 
small  fruit  in  a  class  by  itself. 
Picking,  marketing,  and  storing  the  fruit. — Whether 


FIG.  21.     HARVESTING  APPLES 

the  apples  and  peaches  are  to  be  gathered  for  home 
use  or  to  be  sold  on  the  market,  it  is  always  best  to  care- 
fully pick  them  from  the  trees  rather  than  to  shake  them 
down  and  allow  them  to  become  bruised  or  injured. 
Fruit  with  bruised  or  broken  skin  will  rot  much  sooner, 
and  sell  for  less  in  the  market.  Apples  and  peaches 


FRUIT    GROWING  61 

should  be  picked  by  hand  and  placed  in  baskets  by  the 
pickers.  Apples  should  be  kept  in  a  cool,  well  ventilated 
place  until  freezing  weather  before  storing  in  the  winter 
cellar.  Winter  apples  will  keep  much  longer  and  in  bet- 
ter condition  if  each  fruit  is  wrapped  in  thin  paper  of 
some  sort.  Apples  for  the  market  are  carefully  graded 
and  packed  in  attractive  packages,  either  in  barrels  or 
bushel  boxes,  and  shipped  to  all  parts  of  the  country 
and  to  foreign  lands. 

Practical  Exercises 
1.     Types  of  Fruit 

1.  Let  each  pupil  take  an  apple  and  a  pear  and  ob- 
serve the  blossom  end,  opposite  the  stem.     Here  is  a 
depression  called  the  basin.     This  was  the  base  of  the 
apple  and  pear  blossom.     Compare  with  the  blossom 
end  of  the  peach  or  plum.     Explain  the  difference. 

2.  Let  each  pupil  cut  the  fruits  through  the  center 
in  a  plane  perpendicular  to  the  main  stem.     Examine 
the  core,  the  cells  and  the  seeds.     How  many  cells  are 
there?     How  are  they  arranged?     Observe  the  parch- 
ment-like walls  of  the  cells.     How  many  seeds  in  each 
cell?     Make  a  drawing  of  the  cross  section  of  the  pear 
or  apple. 

3.  Compare  the  structure  of  the  plum  or  peach  pits 
with  the  apple  seeds.    Note  the  hard  shell-like  covering 
of  the  pits.     Crack  the  shell  and  observe  the  seed.     In 
this  meaty  portion  lies  the  embyro,  which  will  grow  into 
a  new  plant  under  proper  conditions  of  air,  heat,  and 
moisture.    Draw  cross  section  of  the  peach. 


62 


LES80XS    IX    AGRICULTURE 


Answer  the  following  questions: 

1.  What  fruits  have  a  depression  at  the  blossom  end? 

2.  What  fruits  are  more  or  less  round  at  the  blossom 
end? 

3.  What  common  fruits  have  seeds  ? 

4.  What  three  common  fruits  have  pits? 

5.  How  much  space  does  the  core  take  up  in  the 
apple  ? 

6.  How  many  cells  in  the  core  of  the  apple  ? 

7.  How  do  pits  and  seeds  differ  in  structure  ? 

8.  What  are  the  general  differences  between  a  pome 
fruit  and  a  drupe  fruit  ? 

References:     U.  S.  Dept.  Bulletin,  No.  178. 

2.    Judging  and  Scoring  Apples 

Each  pupil  should  bring  four  or  five  apples  of  the 
same  variety  to  exhibit  and  use  for  scoring.  The  apples 
should  be  of  standard  size,  all  alike  in  shape,  size,  and 
color.  Each  apple  should  be  free  from  insect,  or  fun- 
gous blemish,  and  as  nearly  perfect  in  every  respect  as 
it  is  possible  to  find.  If  only  one  plate  of  apples  can  be 
obtained,  set  it  before  the  class  and  let  each  pupil  mark 
the  score  for  the  apples,  using  the  following  score  card : 
Score  Card  for  Judging  Apples 


Points  Noted. 

Perfect 
Score. 

Pupil  '» 
Score. 

Teacher  's 
Score. 

Size  of  the  exhibit  

20 

Color    

15 

Form   •  

*         15 

Quality      .      .        

15 

Freedom   from   blemishes.. 
Total   

20 
100 

FRUIT  GROWING  63 

When  single  plates  or  apples  are  scored,  the  first  point 
may  be  graded  the  full  20  points. 

2.    Decay  in  Apples 

Select  three  ripe  apples  of  the  same  variety  and  of 
equal  degree  of  ripeness,  and  bring  them  before  the  class. 

1.  Strike  against  the  side  of  one  so  as  to  bruise  the 
surface  but  not  break  the  skin. 

2.  Bruise  the  second  apple  so  that  the  skin  is  broken. 

3.  Leave  the  third  apple  uninjured. 

Place  the  three  apples  away  somewhere  in  the  room 
where  they  will  not  be  disturbed,  and  observe  the  results 
from  day  to  day. 

1.  Which  apple  decays  first? 

2.  Of  what  use  is  the  skin  of  the  apple  ? 

3.  Take  two  apples  of  nearly  the  same  size,   and 
weigh  both.     Peel  one  and  leave  the  other  untouched. 
Weigh  both  apples  again  in  twenty-four  hours.    Which 
has  lost  the  most  in  weight?    Explain  the  cause. 

NOTE.     If  there  are  no  scales  in  the  school,  ask  some 
pupil  to  bring  his  instrument  from  his  home. 

Problems 

1.  On  our  farm  is  an  apple  orchard  of  three  acres. 
If  the  trees  are  40  feet  apart,  and  are  about  15  years 
old,  what  cash  return  should  we  expect  from  the  sale 
of  apples  at  $3.00  per  barrel? 

2.  What  will  it  cost  per  acre  to  set  out  a  young  apple 
orchard,  if  we  have  to  pay  25c  a  tree?    Plant  trees  in 
squares,  36  feet  apart. 

3.  Deduct  from  the  price  received  above  for  apples, 
the  expenses  of  spraying,  determined  in  Lesson  73,  and 


64  LESSONS    IN    AGRIfULTURE 

give  the  net  profit  we  shall  have  on  our  three-acre  or- 
chard. 

References:     Bailey's  Principles  of  Fruit  Growing. 
Farmers'  Bulletin,  No.  178. 
Waugh  's  American  Apple  Orchard. 
Farmers'  Bulletins,  Nos.  113  and  33. 
Farmers'  Bulletin,  No.  154. 


LESSON  XVIII 

NUT  CROPS 

Value  of  the  nut  crop. — Nuts  are  not  usually  thought 
of  as  a  farm  crop,  yet  every  country  boy  and  girl  knows 
that  the  autumn  time  without  nuts  would  lose  much  of 
its  charm.  Nuts  are  valuable  food.  They  are  rich  and 
nutritious,  and  should  always  be  counted  as  a  part  of 
our  winter's  store.  There  are  several  kinds  of  nut  trees 
which  are  highly  esteemed  as  ornamental  shade  trees,  as 
well  as  for  the  valuable  fruit  they  yield. 

Some  of  the  leading  kinds  of  nuts  are  English  walnut, 
almond,  white  walnut  or  butternut,  black  walnut,  hickory 
nut,  pecan,  chinquapin,  chestnut,  hazel  nut,  cocoanut, 
and  Brazil  nut. 

Nuts  to  plant. — The  planting  of  nut  orchards  is  to  be 
encouraged  on  the  farm.  Several  varieties  of  valuable 
nuts,  such  as  the  pecan,  English  walnut,  and  hickory  nut, 
are  widely  adapted  to  temperate  as  well  as  sub-tropical 
regions,  and  should  be  planted  on  more  of  our  farms. 
The  pecan,  especially  such  varieties  as  Mantura  and  Ap- 
pomatox,  the  English  walnut,  and  the  little  shell-bark 
or  shag-bark  hickory,  have  been  successfully  grown  as 
far  north  as  latitude  40°.  If  the  boys  and  girls  who  read 
this  lesson  would  plant  a  few  nut  trees  this  month,  they 


CLASSIFICATION    OF    FARM    CROPS 


G5 


would  be  rewarded,  even  before  they  were  full  grown 
men  and  women,  by  profitable  and  gratifying  returns  of 
a  most  delicious  food. 

Practical  Exercises 
1.     Tabular  Study  of  Nuts 

Bring  to  the  school  samples  of  as  many  different  kinds 
of  nuts  as  you  can  find  this  month.  Fill  out  the  follow- 
ing table  from  your  observation  and  study  of  these  nuts : 


Kind  of  Nut.  |  Nature  of  Shells. 

Kind  ol   Kernel. 

Price  in   the  Markets. 

Reference:     Farmers'  Bulletin,  No.  332. 


LESSON  XIX 

CLASSIFICATION    OF    FARM   CROPS 

Outline  Review 

By  the  end  of  October  all  the  farm  crops  for  the  year 
have  been  planted  and  most  of  them  harvested.  It  will 
be  well  for  us  to  classify  these  crops  into  a  few  groups 
by  which  they  are  commonly  mentioned. 

The  following  outline  should  be  copied  into  the  pupils' 
note-books,  and  filled  out  as  indicated : 

I.  Cereals.  Those  crops  which  belong  to  the  grass 
family,  and  whose  seeds  are  made  into  flour  which  is 
used  for  bread. 


2. 
3. 


,;i;  LESSONS    IN    AGRICULTURE 

II.  Legumes.     Plants  with   blossoms  similar  to  the 
sweet  pea  and  garden  pea. 

1 4 

2 5 

3 6 

III.  Roots.        Crops  having  a  slender  or  fleshy  root 
which  is  used  for  food  both  for  live  stock  and  man. 

1 :* 

2 4 

IV.  Tubers.     An  enlarged  underground  stem,  used 
for  food. 

1 2 

V.  Bulbs.    An  enlarged  and  thickened  leaf -stock  or 
petiole,  on  which  are  thickened  scale  leaves. 

1 2 

VI.  Fibre  Crops.    Any  plant  that  furnishes  material 
out  of  which  cloth  or  rope  is  made  is  called  a  fibre  plant. 

1 3 

2 

VII.  Forage  Crops.     The  term  forage  crops  is  used 
for  a  good  many  crops.     It  usually  means  those  crops 
that  are  used  for  coarse  feed  for  live  stock. 

1 4 

2 5 

3 6 

VIII.  Miscellaneous  Crops.    Various  other  crops  that 
cannot  be  classified  with  the  above. 

1 4 

2 5 

3.  .    6. 


NOVEMBER 

On  the  farm. — When  the  harvest  is  over  and  the 
winter  stores  are  properly  put  away,  we  shall  look  to 
the  stock  on  our  farm.  We  must  decide  what  stock  we 
shall  keep  over  winter  and  what  we  should  sell.  The 
barns  and  sheds  must  be  in  good  repair,  the  mows  and 
silos  full  of  feed,  and  all  conveniences  possible  provided 
for  the  care  and  feeding  of  the  live  stock.  The  most  im- 
portant work  on  the  farm  during  the  winter  months  is 
the  care  and  feeding  of  the  farm  animals. 

• 

LESSON  XX 
THE  STOCK  ON  THE  FARM 

The  good  farmer  in  most  cases  avoids  "scrub"  stock. 
He  has  learned  that  it  pays  to  take  good  care  of  his  stock, 
and  that  it  costs  no  more  in  care  and  feed  to  raise  a  good 
animal  than  to  raise  a  poor  one.  The  successful  farmer 
has  also  learned  that  it  pays  to  keep  plenty  of  live  stock 
on  the  farm.  Farm  animals  are  kept  primarily  to  sup- 
ply the  demand  for  meat,  milk,  eggs,  wool,  and  to  fur- 
nish motive  power  for  certain  kinds  of  labor,  but  they 
also  make  possible  a  larger  production  of  grain  year 
after  year,  and  a  complete  utilization  of  everything  grown 
on  the  farm,  besides  returning  to  the  farm  a  large  per- 
centage of  the  feed  in  the  form  of  valuable  fertilizers. 

67 


68  LESSONS     IN     AUKHTI/n'KK 

Feeding  farm  animals. — Animals  must  be  fed  to 
make  them  grow,  to  keep  them  warm  and  active,  and  to 
furnish  special  products,  such  as  milk,  eggs,  wool,  etc. 
Animals  must  be  fed  regularly  and  with  the  proper  food 
in  sufficient  quantities.  Shelter  against  the  heat  and 
storms  of  summer  and  the  cold  of  winter  must  go  along 


Fio.  22.     HIGH  GRADE  BEEF  CATTLE 

with  the  proper  feeding  of  farm  animals.  If  the  stables 
are  cold  or  the  animals  are  allowed  to  stand  out  during 
the  winter  days,  then  the  additional  heat  required  to 
keep  them  warm  must  be  supplied  by  additional  food. 
Animals,  like  people,  suffer  in  extremes  of  temperature. 
It  is  not  right  to  allow  stock  to  suffer,  either  for  food  or 
shelter.  Animals  that  are  poorly  fed,  left  unsheltered, 
or  allowed  to  become  filthy  and  dirty,  grow  unhealthy, 


THE    STOCK    ON    THE    FARM 


69 


sicken,  and  die.    No  one  can  doubt  that  it  pays  to  take 
good  care  of  stock. 

Value  of  good  stock. — It  takes  no  more  room  and 
costs  no  more  in  food  and  care  to  raise  a  good  farm  ani- 
mal than  it  does  to  raise  a  "scrub."  A  scrub  cow  eats 
as  much  hay,  takes  as  much  stable  room,  and  requires  as 
much  work  to  care  for  as  a  cow  of  good  breeding,  and 


FIG.  23.     A  HERD  OF  JERSEYS 

it  has  been  shown  that  the  scrub  cow  does  not  pay  for 
her  keep.  A  scrub  colt  or  a  scrub  sheep  is  no  better  than 
a  scrub  cow;  it  eats  as  much  or  more,  and  will  not  sell 
for  as  much  as  a  good  animal.  And  a  "hazel-splitter" 
hog  certainly  requires  as  much  food  and  care  as  a 
genuine  "porker."  If  the  pupils  who  read  this  lesson 
are  convinced  that  it  pays  to  keep  good  stock  instead  of 
scrubs,  the  purpose  of  the  lesson  is  already  attained. 

Free  Bulletins,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture 

No.    41. — Fowls:    Care  and  Feeding. 

No.    51. — Standard  Varieties  of  Chickens. 

No.    64. — Ducks  and  Geese:    Breeds  and  Management. 

No.  100. — Hog  Kaising  in  the  South. 


70  LESSONS    IN    ACKH  ULTUKE 

No.  141. — Poultry  Raising  on  the  Farm. 

No.  179. — Horseshoeing. 

No.  200. — Turkeys:    Breeds  and  Management. 

No.  205. — Pig   Management. 
Extracts. 

No.    15. — Some  Practical  Suggestions  for  the  Suppression  and 
Prevention  of  Bovine  Tuberculosis. 

Table  showing  value  of  manure,  per  head,  produced  annually 
by  farm  animals: 

Horse   $2  *.00 

Cow   19.00 

Hog    12.00 

Sheep    : 2.00 

Table  showing  value  of  manure,  per  animal,  saved  annually 
from  animals  by  the  average  farmer: 

Horse   $10.00 

Cow   6.00 

Hog    4.00 

Sheep    75 

Practical  Exercises 

NOTE.    The  practical  lessons  on  farm  animals  will  be 
given  and  numbered  as  separate  lessons  in  this  series. 


LESSON  XXI 
THE   DRIVING  HOESE 

By  comparing  the  horses  we  see  on  the  road,  we  can 
observe  that  there  are  different  forms  or  types.  Some 
have  a  form  that  enables  them  to  draw  a  heavy  load 
at  a  slow  pace,  while  others  have  a  form  adapted  to 
drawing  light  loads  at  a  rapid  pace.  These  represent 
two  distinct  types,  and  are  called  draft  horses  and  driv- 
ing horses. 

In  this  lesson  we  are  to  study  the  driving  horse.  You 
will  observe  that  the  driving  horse  has  a  long  graceful 
neck,  a  narrow  chest,  long  body  and  legs.  In  this  horse 


THE  DRIVING  HORSE  71 

weight  is  not  so  important  as  in  the  draft  horse.  Speed 
and  endurance  seem  to  be  the  principal  points  sought 
in  the  roadster.  The  driving  horse  varies  widely  in 
height  and  weight. 

The  following  points  any  school  boy  should  recognize 
in  a  good  driving  horse : 


FIG.  24.   A  GENERAL  PURPOSE  HORSE 

1.  The  color  is  not  so  important  in  this  type  of  horses. 
The  dark  colors  are  generally  preferred. 

2.  Geldings  are  to  be  preferred. 

3.  The  horse  should  be  fifteen  to  sixteen  hands  high 
at  the  withers. 

4.  Conformation.      The    horse    should   be    harmoni- 


72  LESSONS    IX    ACKH  I 'I. TUBE 

ous,  unblemished,  withers  rather  low,  and  loins  slightly 
weak,  but  powerful  croup,  thighs,  buttocks,  legs  and 
hocks  are  essential. 

5.  The  neck  should  be  long,  chest  large  and  deep, 
limbs  clean  and  long,  and  muscles  and  joints  showing 
graceful  prominence. 

6.  The  animal  should  have  good  life,  and  not  be 
afraid  of  ordinary  objects. 

The  teacher  should  study  the  following  score  card 
for  light  horses,  and  if  the  proper  explanations  be 
made,  pupils  of  the  eighth  grade  will  be  able  to  mark 
the  card  and  score  the  horse  fairly  well : 

Have  a  horse  before  the  class  for  this  lesson. 

The  class  should  gather  about  the  horse,  with  this 
book  in  hand,  and  opened  at  the  score  card.  Each  pu- 
pil should  read  each  point  of  the  score  card,  then  look 
at  the  horse  to  see  how  it  measures  up  to  the  description 
given.  Mark  lightly  with  lead  pencil  the  grade  you 
would  give  on  each  point,  opposite  the  perfect  grade 
given  on  the  score  card. 


THE  DRIVING  HORSE 


73 


Score  Card  for  Light  Horse 


Description. 


(Perfect! 
Score.  I 


Students' 
Score. 


Frame — Smooth,     evenly     proportioned 4 

Quality — Bone  clean  and  hard,  tendons  well  de- 
fined, veins  prominent,  skin  and  hair  fine 

Temperament — Active    but    kind     3 

Head — Lean    and    symetrical     

Forehead — Full    and    broad     1 

Eyes — Large,    clear,    open,    and    bright 1 

Ears — Close  together,   medium  in  size,  pointed  to 

carry    well    forward    1 

Muzzle — Clean    and   fine,    nostrils   large,    lips   thin 

and    even     1 

Neck — Muscular,   crest   high,    windpipe   prominent. 

Shoulders — Long,    oblique,    well    muscled 

Arms — Short,     thrown    forward 1 

Fore-arms — Long,     wide      

Knees — Wide,   straight,   and  clean    

Cannons — Short,    wide,    sinews    large 2 

Fetlock — Wide,    straight     1 

Pasterns — Strong,    angle    with    ground  45    degrees.  3 

Feet — Medium  and  even  in  size,  horn  dense,  frog 
large,  elastic,  bars  strong,  sole  concave,  heel 

wide     6 

Legs — Viewed  in  front,  a  perpendicular  from 
point  of  shoulder  should  cut  the  center  of  knee 
cannon,  pastern  and  foot  viewed  from  side,  a 
perpendicular  from  center  of  elbow  should  cut 
the  center  of  knee  and  pastern  joint  and  the 

back    of   hoof     4 

Withers — Well  finished  and  muscled  at  top t 

Chest — Deep,     low,     large 2 

Ribs — Long,     sprung,     close 2 

Back — Straight,    short,    broad,    well    muscled 2 

Loin — Wide,   short   and   thick    2 

Underline — Short,     straight     1 

Hips — Wide,    level     2 

Croup — Long,    wide,    muscular    2 

Tail — Attached    high,    well    carried 1 

Thighs — Muscular,    long,    and    spread 

Quarters — Deep    and    heavily    muscled 2 

Gaskin — Muscular,    long    and    wide 2 

Hocks — Clean,    wide,    straight    

Cannons — Short,  wide,   and  clean    2 

Fetlocks — Wide,     straight     1 

Pastern — Strong,    sloping    2 

Feet — Same   as   fore   feet    4 

Legs — From  behind,  perpendicular  from  point  of 
buttock  cuts  center  of  hock,  cannon,  pastern 
and  foot;  from  side,  perpendicular  from  point 
of  hip  should  fall  on  center  of  foot  and  di- 
vide gaskin  in  the  middle  and  perpendicular 
from  buttock  should  be  parallel  with  cannon..  4 
Action — Walk  quick,  elastic,  trot  rapid,  straight. 

regular    and    high     )       20 

I  I 

I I 

Total     I     100     | 


74  LESSONS   IN    AGRICULTURE 

LESSON  XXII 

THE  DEAFT  HORSE 

Have  a  draft  horse  in  the  school  yard  for  this  lesson. 

Note  the  short  legs,  heavy  body,  short,  thick  neck, 
broad,  deep  chest  and  shoulders,  strong  hocks  and  rather 
large  joints  and  feet.  With  the  draft  type  weight  is  one 
of  the  most  important  considerations.  A  draft  horse 
may  weigh  from  1,500  to  2,000  pounds.  The  heavy 
horse  in  harness  brings  greater  power  into  the  collar 
than  does  the  light  one. 

There  are  several  different  breeds  of  draft  horses. 
The  Percherons,  Belgians,  Clydesdale,  and  English 
Shires  are  the  common  breeds. 

The  following  points  any  school  boy  should  recognize 
in  a  good  draft  horse : 

1.  The  best  selling  colors  are :    bay,  chestnut,  brown, 
roan,  black,  and  iron  gray. 

2.  Body  conformation,  massive,  low-set,  ample,  very 
muscular,   short-flanked,   cylindrical,   large   and   broad 
limbs,  good  feet,  good  face,  ardor,  and  endurance. 

3.  The  horse  should  be  at  least  sixteen  hands  high 
at  the  withers. 

4.  The  animal  should  be  sound,  and  the  following 
blemishes  should  always  be  in   mind  in  examining  a 
horse:     Spavin,  curb,  thorough-pin,  sidebones,  splints, 
sweeney,    sprung   knees,    faulty   hoofs,    poor   eyesight, 
string  halt,  poor  wind,  parrot  mouth,  blindness,  etc. 

5.  The  horse  should  have  good  life  but  be  gentle. 
While  the  horse  is  present  for  this  lesson,  some  in- 
teresting and  profitable   measurements  may  be   made. 


THE   DRAFT   HORSE  75 

which  should  teach  the  pupils  to  recognize  good  pro- 
portions in  the  horse. 

Three  important  points  for  measurements  are,  length 
of  the  head,  total  length  of  the  body,  and  the  total 
height  of  the  body. 


FIG.  25.     A  PEUCIIEKON  TEAM 

Use  an  ordinary  tape  measure  in  this  part  of  the 
exercise. 

1.  The   height   of  the   horse,   from  the  top   of   the 
withers  to  the  ground. 

2.  The   height   of  the  horse   from  the  hips  to   the 
ground. 

3.  Length  of  the  body  from  the  point  of  the  elbow 
to  the  back  of  the  buttock. 

4.  The  length  of  the  head. 

It  will  be  found  in  a  horse  of  good  proportions  that 


7C  LESSONS   IN    AGRICULTURE 

the  first  three  measurements  each  equal  about  two  and 
one-half  times  the  length  of  the  head. 

If  we  take  the  total  length  of  the  horse's  head,  and 
compare  it  with  the  body  of  a  well  formed  horse,  we 
will  find  that  there  are  four  other  measurements  al- 
most exactly  equal  to  it  as  follows : 

1.  The  length  of  the  neck  from  the  top  of  the  withers 
to  the  poll.     If  there  is  much  difference  between  these 
measurements,  we  say  that  the  head  is  too  long  or  the 
neck  is  too  short. 

2.  The  height  of  the  shoulder  from  the  top  of  the 
withers  to  the  point  of  the  elbow. 

3.  The  thickness  of  the  body  from  the  middle  of 
the  abdomen  to  the  middle  of  the  back.     If  there  is  a 
great  variation  in  these  measurements,  we  say  the  horse 
has  poor  form. 

4.  The  width  of  the  body  from  one  side  to  the  other. 
A  better  instrument  for  taking  the  measurements  of 

a  horse,  as  suggested  by  Mr.  Harper  in  the  Cornell 
Rural  School  Leaflets,  is  as  follows:  A  piece  of  soft 
white  pine  two  inches  wide,  one-half  inch  thick,  and 
four  feet  long ;  to  one  end  of  this,  and  at  right  angles  to 
it,  tack  a  similar  piece  of  pine  18  inches  long;  to  the 
other  end  strap  loosely  an  ordinary  carpenter's  square  so 
that  it  may  slide  back  and  forth.  Now  mark  off  the 
long  piece  into  inches,  beginning  at  the  inside  of  the 
right  angle. 

"Ay!  gather  your  reins  and  crack  your  thong, 

And  bid  your  steed  go  faster ; 

He  does  not  know  as  he  scrambles  along. 

That  he  has  a  fool  for  a  master."        — Holmes. 


THE   DRAFT   HORSE  77 

The  Horses'  Plea 
Please  give  us  water  often. 

Please  give  us  a  moment's  rest  on  the  way  up  the  hill. 
Please  do  not  overload  us.    We  are  doing  our  best. 
Please  do  not  use  the  whip.    It  is  seldom  necessary. 


FIG.   26.     FOUB  FAITHFCL   FKIENDS 

Please  remember  that  we  will  respond  to  a  word  as 
quickly  as  to  a  blow. 

Please  look  out  for  our  health,  and  don't  work  us 
when  we  are  sick. 

Please  see  that  we  are  properly  shod. 

Please  be  sure  that  we  have  enough  to  eat,  and  that 
we  are  fed  regularly. 

Please  see  that  the  harness  fits,  and  does  not  chafe 
sore  or  tender  spots. 

Please  remember  that  two  weeks'  vacation  each  year 
will  make  us  more  serviceable  and  valuable. 

Remember,  we  work  hard  for  you. 


ra 


IN    AGRICULTURE 

LESSON  XXI 1 1 


THE   DAIEY  COW 

For  this  lesson  bring  a  dairy  cow  into  the  school  yard, 
and  as  the  class  observes  the  cow  the  teacher  should 
speak  briefly  upon  the  following  points. 

Cattle  are  kept  for  two  main  purposes;  for  the  pro- 
duction of  milk  and  for  the  production  of  beef.  These 
two  purposes  make  different  demands  upon  the  energies 


FIG.  27.     A  TYPICAL  JERSEY  Cow 

of  the  animal,  and  thus  through  many  generations  of 
selection  and  development,  there  have  arisen  two  types 
of  cattle,  the  beef  form  or  type,  and  the  milk  form  or 
type.  These  two  forms  are  not  entirely  distinct  or 
separate,  but  they  tend  to  merge  into  intermediate  forms. 

The  chief  differences  that  distinguish  the  beef  and 
dairy  types  are : 

1.     Outline  of  body. 


THE   DAIRY   COW 


79 


2.  Depth  and  smoothness  of  flesh. 

3.  Size  of  udders. 

In  the  dairy  type  the  general  outline  of  body  is 
wedge-shaped  from  before  backward.  This  is  due  to 
a  large  development  of  the  hind  quarters,  and  sometimes 
to  low  thin  shoulders.  The  height  of  the  animal  at  the 
hip  is  from  one-half  to  one  inch  greater  than  at  the 
shoulders.  The  wedge-shaped  appearance  is  increased 


FIG.  28.     A  TYPICAL  HOLSTEIN  Cow 

by  a  large  and  pendulous  abdomen,  and  by  a  large  and 
well  developed  udder.  In  the  dairy  type  there  is  less 
muscular  development  and  more  spare,  angular  appear- 
ance. The  animal  may  be  fat  enough  and  still  present 
this  spare  appearance.  In  the  dairy  type  the  udder  is 
much  larger  and  fuller  than  in  the  beef  type,  and  the 
so-called  "milk-veins"  stand  out  prominently. 


80 


LESSONS    IN    AGRICULTURE 


The  dairy  breeds  are  the  Jersey,  Guernsey,  Ayrshire, 
Holstein,  etc. 

While  the  cow  is  before  the  class  the  pupils  should 
each  score  the  animal,  using  the  following  score-card, 
which  explains  how  the  points  should  be  marked: 


Score  Card  for  Dairy  Cows 


Student's    Name Date .  . . 

Breed Age." Weight. 


Description. 


IPerfectl     Studenti 
Score.  I        Score. 


General — 
Form — Wedge    shaped,    viewed    from    front,    side 

and    top    

Quality — Hair    and    skin    fine    and    mellow,    skin 

loose    and    thin    

Temperament — Nervous     

Head   and   Neck — 

Muzzle — Large    and   clean,    nostrils    large 

Eyes — Large,    brilliant   full   and   mild 

Face — Dishing    and    lean    

Forehead — Broad     

Ears — Medium    in    size,    fine    In    texture,    with    no 

long,    coarse    hair    

Horns — Waxy,    small,    and    fine    in    texture , 

Neck — Fine,  clean,   with  little  or  no  dewlap 

Forequarters — 

Withers — Short,     lean     and     thin 

Shoulders — Light,    lean   and    oblique 

Legs — Short,    straight   and    fine 

Body — 

Chest — Deep,    wide,    girth    large    

Bowel — Ribs     arched,      long,     and     wide     apart; 

stomach   large  and  roomy    

Back — Straight,      lean;      spines      prominent      and 

wide    apart    

Loin — Broad     

Navel — Large 

Hindquarters — 

Hips — Far    apart,     level 

Rump — Long    level     

Pinbones    and    Thurlls — High,     wide    apart,    and 

prominent     

Tail — Reaching   to  hocks,    fine 

Thighs — Thin,    long    

Escutcheon — High    and    spreading 

Udder — High    behind,    extending    well    forward    In 

front;     quarters     even;     teats     evenly     placed; 

udder  not   fleshy 


U 

8 


THE    BEEF   COW 


81 


LESSON  XXIV 

THE  BEEF  COW 

This  lesson  should  follow  Lesson  23,  so  that  the  com- 
parison of  the  two  types  may  be  brought  out  more 
clearly.  The  chief  characteristics  of  the  beef  cow  are 
as  follows: 

In  the  beef  form  the  outline  of  the  body  approaches 
the  rectangular.  The  general  contour  of  the  top  and 
bottom  line  is  straight  and  parallel,  and  the  general  di- 


FIG.  29.     BEEF  TYPE 

mensions  of  the  body  approximate  those  of  a  brick.  In 
the  best  beef  animal  the  whole  body  is  thickly  and 
smoothly  covered  with  flesh,  so  that  the  angles  of  the 
bones  are  not  prominent.  The  neck  is  short,  and  the 
whole  body  has  a  rounded  appearance.  In  the  beef  type, 
not  only  is  the  udder  small,  but  the  veins  leading  from 


82  LESSONS    IN    AGRICULTURE 

it  are  small  and  more  or  less  embedded  in  the  surround- 
ing muscular  and  fatty  tissue. 

The  principal  breeds  are:  Aberdeen-Angus,  Gallo- 
ways, Shorthorn  or  Durham,  Hereford,  Sussex,  etc. 

Use  the  following  score  card  and  judge  the  points 
in  the  animal  before  the  class : 

Score   Card  for  Beef  Cattle 

Student's    Name    .    Date    . 


Description. 


I  Perfect  I 

.- .  on 


Student*' 

.<.  ..:••• 


General — 

Weight — Score   according    to   age    10 

Form — Broad,    deep    and    massive;    top    line    and 

under   line   straight;    legs   short    in 

Quality — Hair    fine,    skin    pliable,    evenly    feshed, 

deep    mealed,    especially    in    the   valuable   cuts.  .        15 

Head  and  Neck — 

Forehead — Broad    and    full I 

Eyes — Bright,    clear    and    large 

Face — Short,    quiet    expression     

Muzzle — Mouth    large.    Jaw    wide,    nostril    large.... 

Ears — Fine    texture,    medium    In    size 

Horns — Medium   in   size,   fine   in  texture,   waxy .... 
Neck — Short  and  thick,  with  no  loose  skin 1 

Forequarters — 
Shoulder — Well    covered    with    compact    flesh    on 

top    and    bottom,    and    smooth;    shoulder    vein 

filled   out   so  as   to   make   a   smooth   connection 

with   the   neck    5 

Brisket — Prominent,     showing     well     forward     of 

the   legs  viewed   from   the  side 1 

Dewlap — Should  not  have  a  surplus  of  loose  skin.  1 

Legs — Short   and   straight,    arms    full    and   smooth.  2 

Body — 

Chest — Full,    wide,   deep,    girth    large 5 

Ribs — Arched,    long,    and    thickly    fleshed 6 

Back — Straight.      broad,      smooth,      evenly      and 

deeply    meated     10 

Loin — Broad   and    thick    7 

Flank — Deep    and    full,    making    a    straight    un- 
derline               3 

Hindquarters — 
Rump — Long,    wide    and    smooth,    no    bunches    of 

flesh    at   tall    2 

Hips — Smooth    and   well    covered    with    meat 2 

Pinbones — Far    apart    but    not    prominent 

Thighs — Deep,    wide    and    full 2 

Twist — Deep    and    full     2 

Purse — Full,     fleshy     2 

Legs — Short,    straight    and    smooth 2 

Total  100 


THE    BEEF   COW 


83 


LESSON  XXV 

THE    SHEEP 

Sheep  raising  is  especially  profitable,  and  it  would  be 
well  to  emphasize  the  study  of  this  farm  animal.  Dis- 
cuss the  following  points  about  sheep  : 


FIG.  30.     A  SOUTHDOWN  EWE 

1.  Sheep  are  found  in  almost   every  latitude,   and 
they  can  find  sustenance  and  thrive  where  other  animals 
can  scarcely  live. 

2.  Sheep  provide  man  with  meat  and  clothing,  and 
are  among  the  most  profitable  of  animals. 

3.  Sheep    increase    rapidly,    mature    early,    furnish 
wholesome  food,  and  improve  the  land  on  which  they  are 
pastured. 


84  LESSONS    IN    AGRICULTURE 

4.  Sheep  are  docile,  rather  easily  handled,  live  on 
a  great  diversity  of  food,  and  require  less  grain  than 
any  other  kind  of  live  stock. 

5.  Enough  food  is  wasted  on  the  ordinary  farm  to 
maintain  a  small  flock  of  sheep. 

6.  Sheep  may  he  divided  into  two  classes,  wool  breeds 
and   mutton   breeds.     Of   the   wool    breeds,   American 


FIG.  31.     A  COTSWOLD  EWK 

Merino,  Delaine  Merino,  and  Rambouillets  are  the  stand- 
ard types. 

Of  the  mutton  breeds,  Southdown,  Shropshire,  Horned 
Dorset,  and  Cheviot  are  the  standard  types. 

Open  the  fleece  of  the  sheep  and  observe  the  clean 
skin  in  which  the  fibres  grow.  These  fibres  are  so  rough 
that  they  keep  the  dirt  to  the  outside. 

Wool  is  valuable  in  proportion  to  the  length  and 
evenness  of  the  fibre  and  the  density  of  the  fleece. 

Answer  the  following  questions : 


THE   SHEEP 


85 


1.  How   many   pounds   ought   a   fleece   of   wool   to 
weigh  ? 

2.  Which  makes  the  better  clothing,  coarse  or  fine 
wool? 

3.  Why  are  sheep  washed  before  shearing  ? 

4.  Does  cold  weather  trouble  sheep.     Wet  weather? 
Use  the  following  score  card  and  mark  the  score  for 

each  sheep  before  the  class : 

Score  Card — Sheep 


Scale    of    Points. 

Mutton  Sheep. 
Stand-  (Students' 
ard.     [     Score. 

Fine  W 
Stand- 
ard. 

ool  Sheep. 
Students' 
Score. 

A    Age    .      .      Teeth    

6 

6 

7 

10 

1 
1 

1 
1 
1 

1 

6 
6 

4     1 
3 

8 
4 

3 

4 

5 

4 

5 
9 

10 

1 
1 
1 

1 
1 
1 

4 
5 

3 
3 

6 
3 

B.  General  Appearance 
Weight  —  Estimated    Ibs. 

Actual      Ibs.     according 

Form,     low,     compact,     symmet- 

Quality,    bone    and   wool    flne  
Constitution,      as      seen      in      girth, 

C.   Head    and    Neck. 
Muzzle,    flne;    mouth   and   nostrils 

Eyes,    bright,    full,    whites    clear. 

D.   Forequarters. 
Shoulders,    smooth,    well    covered. 

Brisket,    thick    and    carried    well 

| 

Legs,  straight,  short,  strong,  well 
set,    arm    full,    shank    smooth.. 
E.  Body. 
Back  and  Loin  straight  and  wide. 

Flanks     low,     making     straight 

F.  Hindquarters. 

2 

Thighs     full     

5 

3 

3 
3 
3 

1 

1 

3 
3 

3 

11 
6 
5 
4 

Legs    straight,     short,     strong; 

G.    Wool. 
Quality   fine,    soft,    clean,    even.... 

Yolk 

Total      

i 

100     '                     | 

100 

Animal  

Bre 

Stu 
Gra 

:d  

Date.  .  . 

le  of  Student.  . 

86  LESSONS    IN    AGRICULTURE 

LESSON  XXVI 

THE  HOG 

For  this  lesson  go  to  see  some  good  breed  of  hogs,  or 
have  a  good  specimen  brought  to  the  school  yard. 

The  first  point  to  mention  is  the  hog's  structural 
adaptation  to  the  life  he  leads.  The  skeleton  is  heavy 
and  low,  allowing  great  accumulation  of  weight  in  flesh 
and  fat.  The  snout  is  strong  and  tough  for  rooting, 
and  the  eyes  are  set  below  the  ears,  indicating  his 
ground-feeding  habits. 

The  chief  value  of  the  hog  is  its  production  of  meat, 
and  if  properly  cared  for,  it  will  bring  the  farmer  more 
money  than  any  animal  on  the  farm. 

The  most  desirable  type  of  hog  has  short  legs,  heavy 
shoulders,  small  dished  head,  straight  back  and  straight 
under-lines,  and  heavy  hams.  The  "razor  back"  hogs 
are  very  unprofitable,  and  will  not  gain  so  rapidly  under 
feeding. 

The  following  are  some  standard  breeds  of  hogs : 

1.  Chester  White  5.     Poland-China 

2.  Yorkshire  6.     Duroc-Jersey 

3.  Tamworth  7.     Cheshire 

4.  Berkshire  8.     Victoria. 

Hogs  will  do  better  when  kept  as  little  as  possible  in 
pens.  But  when  they  are  kept  in  pens,  cleanliness  is 
most  important  to  reduce  the  danger  of  disease. 

Score  the  hog,  using  the  following  score-card  and 
marking  the  points : 


THE    HOG 


87 


Score  Card — Hog 


Scale  of  Points. 


I  Students' 

[Standard  |     Score 


GENERAL,    APPEARANCE— 30    Points: 

1.  Weight,    score    according    to    age 

2.  Form     deep,     broad,     low,     long,     symmetrical, 

compact,    standing  squarely   on    legs 

3.  Quality,   hair  silky;     skin   fine;     bone  fine;     mel- 

low    covering     of     flesh,     free     from     lumps 
and    wrinkles     

4.  Condition,    deep,    even    covering    of    tlesh,    espe- 

cially   in    region    of  valuable    cuts •. 

f>.   Temperament    mild,    quiet     

HEAD   AND   NECK— 8   Points: 

6.  Snout,    medium    length,    not    coarse 

7.  Eyes   full,    mild,    bright    

8.  Face   short,    cheeks    full    

9.  Ears   fine,   medium  size,   attached   neatly 

10.  Jowl    strong,    nest    broad,    firm 

11.  Neck    thick,    medium    length,    smooth    to 

shoulder     

FOREQUARTERS — 12    Points: 

12.  Shoulder  broad,   deep,   full,   compact  on   top 

13.  Breast    advanced,     wide 

14.  Legs      straight,      short,      strong;      bones    clean; 

pasterns    upright;    feet    medium    size 

BODY— 32   Points: 

15.  Chest    deep,    broad,    large    girth     

16.  Sides     deep,     lengthy,     full;      ribs     close     and 

well     sprung     

17.  Back      broad,      straight,      thickly      and      evenly 

fleshed     

18.  Loin    wide,    thick,    straight     

19.  Belly    straight,    even     

HINDQUARTERS — 18    Points: 

20.  Hips    wide    apart,    smooth    

21.  Rump    long,     level,     wide,     evenly    fleshed, 

straight     

22.  Ham    heavily    fleshed,    plump,    full,    deep,    wide.  . 

23.  Legs    straight,    short,    strong;    bone    clean,    pas- 

terns  upright;    feet   medium   size 


3 

in 


Total 


100 


Date. 


Animals    

Student     

Answer  the  following  questions: 

1.  At  what  age  marketed? 

2.  Average  weight  then? 

3.  Average  price? 

4.  Symptoms  of  hog  cholera  ? 

5.  Good  preventives? 

6.  At  the  present  price  of  corn  and  hogs,  would  it 
pay  better  to  feed  corn  to  hogs  or  sell  it  by  the  bushel? 


88 


LESSONS    IN    AGRICULTURE 


7.  How  many  and  what  breeds  in  your  community? 

8.  Do  hogs  like  pasture? 

9.  What  do   hog  raisers  generally   feed   the  hogs? 
How  expensive  is  this  feed  as  compared  with  feed  for 
cattle  or  horses? 

Problems 

1.  A  cow  requires  about  4  feet  by  9  feet  floor  space 
for  a  stall,  with  4  feet  by  3  feet  additional  for  a  manger. 
How  much  floor  space  will  be  required  for  20  cows? 


FIG.  32.     A  POLAND-CHINA  PRIZE  WINNER 

2.  Will  it  be  better  to  stand  the  cattle  in  one  long 
row,  or  in  two  rows  of  10  each? 

3.  If  in  two  rows,  would  you  have  them  face  each 
other  with  the  manger  between,  or  face  the  wall  ?  Why  ? 

4.  What  will  be  the  dimensions  of  a  barn  for  20 
cows  in  two  rows  of  10  each,  using  the  floor  space  given 
in  the  first  problem? 

5.  Draw  a  plan  of  this  barn  with  cows  facing  each 


THE    HOG  89 

other.     With  the  cows  facing  the  wall.     What  are  the 
advantages  and  disadvantages  of  each  plan? 

6.  How  many  feet  of  2-inch  plank  will  it  take  to 
lay  the  floor  in  this  barn?     Find  cost  of  same  at  $25 
per  thousand. 

7.  What  will  be  the  cost  of  a  cement  floor  for  same  at 
10  cents  per  square  foot? 

8.  Will  ''scrub"  cattle  require  the  same  room? 
NOTE.    In  the  following  examples  do  not  forget  to  add 

the  value  of  the  manure  produced  to  the  values  of  the 
product : 

9.  If  a  cow  eats  3  tons  of  hay  worth  $6  per  ton, 
1,000  Ibs.  of  ground  feed  worth  80  cents  per  cwt.,  and 
pasture  amounting  to  $5  in  a  year,  what  does  it  cost  a 
farmer  to  keep  a  cow?     Will  a  "scrub"  cow  cost  as 
much? 

10.  A  ''scrub"  cow  will  give  15  Ibs.  of  milk,  worth 
80  cents  per  cwt.,  daily  for  300  days  in  the  year,  and 
raise  a  calf  worth  $3.     What  is  the  farmer's  profit  on 
her? 

11.  A  Jersey  cow  will  give  25  Ibs.  of  milk  daily  for 
the  same  time  and  raise  a  calf  worth  $5.     What  is 
the  farmer's  profit  on  her? 

12.  How  much  more  does  he  make  on  the  Jersey 
than  on  the  "scrub"? 

13.  If  it  costs  2  tons  of  hay,  40  bu.  of  oats  and  $6 
worth  of  pasture  annually  to  raise  a  colt,  what  does  it 
cost  to  raise  a  horse  4  years  old  with  hay  at  $5  per  ton 
and  oats  at  30  cents  per  bu.  ? 


90  LESSONS    IN    AGRICULTURE 

14.  A  "scrub"  colt  will  bring  about  $80.    Has  the 
farmer  lost  or  gained,  and  how  much? 

15.  A  coach  horse  will  bring  $150  instead.     What 
has  the  farmer  gained  or  lost  on  this  colt  ?    Which  is  the 
more  profitable  animal  f 

16.  If  it  takes  3  tons  of  hay  worth  $6  per  ton,  50 
bu.  oats  worth  25  cents  per  bu.,  and  $10  worth  of  pasture 
to  keep  10  sheep  for  a  year,  what  is  the  cost  per  head? 

17.  If  one  "scrub"  sheep  will  shear  about  4  Ibs. 
of  wool  worth  20  cents  per  lb.,  and  raise  a  lamb  that 
will  weight  about  50  Ibs.  and  bring  about  $3.50  per 
cwt.,  what  will  the  entire  flock  return  to  the  farmer? 
What  will  each  sheep  return?     Will  he  gain  or  lose, 
and  how  much? 

18..  If  of  a  good  breed,  each  sheep  will  shear  about 
8  Ibs.  of  wool  and  raise  a  lamb  weighing  about  70  Ibs., 
worth  $5  per  cwt.,  what  will  this  flock  return?  What 
will  each  sheep  return? 

19.  How  much  per  head  will  be  the  farmer's  gain 
on  a  well-bred  flock  ? 

20.  If  it  takes  12  bu.  of  corn  worth  35  cents  per 
bu.  and  $3  worth  of  other  feed  to  raise  a  pig  until  it  is 
six  months  old,   what   is  the  cost   of  the  pig  to  the 
farmer  ? 

21.  If  a  "scrub,"  it  will  weigh  about  125  Ibs.  at  six 
months  and  bring  $4  per  cwt.    Will  the  farmer  gain  CK 
lose? 

22.  If  a  Poland-China,  it  will  weigh  about  200  Ibs. 
and  be  worth  $4.75  per  cwt.     What  is  the  pig  worth? 
Will  the  farmer  gain  or  lose,  and  how  much? 


FKKDS    AND    FEED1M;  91 

23.  How  much  more  will  the  blooded  pig  bring  on 
the  market  than  the  scrub? 

LESSON  XXVII 

FEEDS   AND   FEEDING 

Purposes  of  feeding. — We  have  learned  that  we  feed 
live  stock  to  repair  the  waste  in  their  bodies,  to  make 
them  grow,  to  keep  their  bodies  warm,  to  furnish  energy 
for  work,  and  to  make  special  products — milk,  eggs,  wool, 
and  the  like.  All  animals  wear  out  their  muscles  by  work 
and  exercise,  and  must  have  food  to  repair  this  waste  or 
they  will  grow  thin  and  poor.  The  harder  the  horses 
work,  the  more  they  must  be  fed.  Young  animals  that 
are  growing  must  not  only  eat  to  repair  the  waste,  but 
they  must  have  food  to  make  them  grow  larger.  The 
bodies  of  animals  are  kept  warm  by  the  food  they  eat. 
The  strength  of  the  horse  and  its  power  to  do  work  must 
come  from  the  food  it  eats.  The  food  builds  up  the  mus- 
cles, and  strong  muscles  are  necessary  for  work.  Just 
as  the  fuel  and  water  make  the  engine  go,  so  food  fur- 
nishes the  heat  and  energy  to  ' '  make  the  mare  go. ' '  In 
addition  to  all  these  reasons  for  food,  the  dairy  cow  must 
have  food  out  of  which  to  make  milk.  When  the  pasture 
gets  "short"  in  the  summer,  we  notice  the  milk  supply 
runs  low.  So,  too,  the  sheep  must  have  an  extra  supply 
of  food  out  of  which  to  make  wool,  and  the  hen  requires 
special  food  from  which  to  make  eggs. 

Kinds  of  food  needed. — Farm  animals  are  a  sort  of 
factory,  producing  materials  that  we  need.  The  horse 


92  LESSONS    IX    AGRICULTURE 

is  a  power  house ;  the  cow  is  a  milk  factory ;  the  sheep,  a 
wool  factory;  the  hen,  an  egg  factory,  and  the  hog,  a 
meat  factory.  In  order  to  get  these  products  from  our 
animal  factories,  we  must  feed  them  the  raw  materials 
from  which  they  can  make  these  products.  Herein  lies 
the  problem  of  the  whole  system  of  stock  feeding.  The 
farmer  must  determine  the  best  and  most  economical  food 
to  be  used  in  order  to  produce  the  desired  results. 

Foods  are  divided  into  three  classes:  fats,  protein, 
and  carbohydrates.  The  following  are  examples  of  these 
foods : 

Fat  meats,  butter,  lard,  and  all  kinds  of  oils,  come 
under  the  class  of  fats.  The  white  of  an  egg  is  the  best 
example  of  protein.  The  sticky  part  of  flour,  the  princi- 
pal part  of  cheese,  lean  meat,  glue,  hides,  hair,  wool,  and 
feathers,  are  largely  protein.  Starch,  sugar,  and  vege- 
table fibre  are  the  carbohydrates.  The  fats  are  usually 
included  under  carbohydrates  also,  and  may  thus  be 
considered  in  these  lessons.  Carbohydrates  are  foods  con- 
taining carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen  in  combination. 
The  protein  foods  differ  from  the  carbohydrates  in  that 
they  contain  nitrogen  in  addition  to  other  elements. 

Balanced  rations. — All  the  common  stock  foods  have 
more  or  less  of  the  three  kinds  of  materials  mentioned 
above — fats,  protein,  and  carbohydrates.  A  balanced 
ration  is  one  that  has  the  proper  amount  of  protein  and 
carbohydrates  to  secure  the  animal  product  desired. 
The  balanced  ration  usually  given  for  a  dairy  cow 
and  a  work  horse  is  one  in  which  there  is  about  six 


FEEDS   AND   FEEDING  93 

times  as  much  carbohydrates  as  protein.  A  "wide"  ra- 
tion contains  a  larger  proportion  of  carbohydrates,  and 
a  "narrow"  ration,  less.  The  table  at  the  end  of  the 
lesson  shows  how  much  dry  matter,  fats,  protein,  and 
carbohydrates  are  in  the  different  reeding  stuffs. 

Special  uses  of  the  different  foods. — The  protein 
foods  make  bone,  blood,  and  muscles.  The  carbohydrates 
are  the  fat  producing  foods.  Carbohydrates  make  heat 
for  the  body.  If  muscle  is  to  be  built  up,  then  protein 
foods  must  be  fed.  If  the  horses  are  fed  only  upon  corn 
and  timothy  hay  in  the  summer,  they  are  getting  too 
much  fat  and  heat  producing  food,  and  not  enough  mus- 
cle forming  food.  Corn  and  timothy  are  rich  in  car- 
bohydrates. Oats  and  clover  hay  are  rich  in  protein  food 
material.  In  the  spring  it  is  muscle  and  energy  that  is 
wanted  and  not  heat  and  fat.  Protein  foods  are  also  re- 
quired to  produce  wool,  milk,  and  eggs.  Young  growing 
animals  should  be  fed  plenty  of  protein  foodj  with  min- 
eral matter  in  it,  to  form  bone  and  muscle.  In  most 
foods  there  is  plenty  of  carbohydrates;  the  difficulty  is 
to  get  the  protein  food  in  the  proper  balanced  ration.  To 
find  the  total  amount  of  carbohydrate  in  any  feeding 
stuff,  multiply  the  fats  given  by  2V±,  and  add  to  the  car- 
bohydrates. One  pound  of  fat  will  produce  2*4  times 
as  much  heat  as  one  pound  of  carbohydrates.  The 
"nutritive  ratio"  is  the  proportion  of  protein  to  car- 
bohydrates. To  find  the  nutritive  ratio  of  any  ration, 
divide  the  total  amount  of  carbohydrates  in  the  ration 
by  the  total  amount  of  protein. 


94  LESSONS    IN    AGRICULTURE 

Practical  Exercises 

NOTE.  The  practical  exercises  on  this  subject  follow 
as  separate  lessons. 

LESSON  XVIII 

TEST  FOR  FOOD  COMPOUNDS 

(a)  To  test  for  the  presence  of  starch  in  such  car- 
bohydrates as  corn,  oats,  wheat,  or  rye,  pulverize  a  few 
seeds,  pour  over  them  a  little  boiling  water,  let  stand 
a  short  time,  and  add  a  drop  of  iodine.     If  the  seeds 
contain  starch  the  water  will  turn  blue  or  black  in  a 
short  time.     If  the  seeds  contain  sugar  it  may  be  de- 
tected  by   chewing   them   slowly   and   thoroughly.      A 
sweet  taste  will  indicate  the  presence  of  sugar. 

(b)  To  test  for  protein,  remove  the  germ  from  a 
kernel  of  corn  and  scorch  it  on  the  stove.     If  it  gives 
off  the  odor  like  that  of  burning  feathers,  it  contains 
protein.     All  seeds  contain  protein.     Test  other  seeds 
for  protein. 

(c)  To  test  for  fats  or  oil,  crush  seeds  or  nuts  on  a 
piece  of  clean  white  paper.    Heat  the  paper  gently,  be- 
ing careful  not  to  scorch  it.     The  grease  spot  that  ap- 
pears will  indicate  the  presence  of  oil. 

It  might  be  a  profitable  exercise  to  make  collections 
of  feeding  stuffs,  and  classify  them  into  fats,  protein,  and 
carbohydrates. 


RATIONS  FOR  FARM  ANIMALS  95 

LESSON  XXIX 

DETERMINING    RATIONS    FOR    FARM    ANIMALS 
The  following  formula  illustrates  the  method  of  find- 


ing the  nutritive  ratio : 
Carbohydrates+(fatX2.25) 


—nutritive  ratio. 


protein 

For  example,  suppose  we  wish  to  find  the  nutritive 
ratio  of  the  following  ration:  (Horse  weighing  1,000 
pounds,  doing  medium  work.) 

Timothy  hay   15  pounds 

Corn    .10  pounds 

Cotton-seed  meal 3  pounds 

Solution : 

In  100  pounds  of  timothy  hay  there  is  86.8  Ibs. 
dry  matter,   2.8  protein,   43.4  carbohydrates,   and   1.4 
fat.     (See  table  below.) 
In  15  pounds  hay  there  are : 

15-100  of  86.8  dry  matter,  13.02  pounds. 
15-100  of  2.8  protein,  .42  pounds. 
15-100  of  43.4  carbohydrates,  6.51  pounds. 
15-100  of  1.4  fat,  .21  pounds. 
In  10  pounds  corn  there  are : 

10-100  of  89.1  dry  matter,  8.91  pounds. 
10-100  of  7.9  protein,  7.9  pounds. 
10-100  of  66.7  carbohydrate,  6.67  pounds. 
10-100  4.3  fat,  .43  pounds. 
In  3  pounds  cotton-seed  meal  there  are : 
3-100  of  91.5  dry  matter,  2.74  pounds. 
3-100  of  38.1  protein,  1.14  pounds. 


LESSONS    IN    AGRICULTURE 


3-100  of  16.0  carbohydrate,  .48  pounds. 
3-100  of  12.6  fat,  .378  pounds. 


Dry  matter 

Protein 

Carbo- 
hydrate 

Fat 

Timothy,    15    Ibs  

Kt.irj 

.42 

6  51 

21 

Corn,    10  Ibs  

8.91 

79 

6  67 

43 

Cottonseed  meal,  3  Ibs.  . 

2.74 

1.14 

.48 

.378 

Total      

24.67 

2.35 

13.66 

1.018 

Substituting  in  the  formula  given  above, 

13.66-f  (1.018X2.25) 
2~35 —        ~~=6+-    Nutritive  ratio  is  1  to  6. 

This  is  a  proper  ratio  for  the  horse  referred  to 
above.  One-fourth  for  breakfast,  one-fourth  for  dinner 
and  one-half  for  supper  would  be  the  proper  division  of 
his  ration. 

Problem. — Find  the  nutritive  ratio  for  15  Ibs.  of  clover 
hay  and  5  pounds  of  oat  straw,  and  10  pounds  of  oats. 

Stock  Foods — Average  of  Digestible  Nutrients 


NAME   OF  FOOD 
Digestive  nutrients  in  100 
pounds 

u 
V 

*5?'° 
£2§ 

K££ 
Q 

Protein 

•I 
i 
K 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Green    food   and   ensilage  — 

20  7 

1  0 

0  4 

11  8 

Rye    fodder    

23  4 

2.1 

0.4 

14.1 

Kentucky    bluegrass    

34  9 

3  0 

0  8 

r.t  s 

29  2 

2  9 

0  7 

14  S 

16  4 

1  8 

0  2 

8  7 

Corn    ensilage    

20  9 

0  9 

0.7 

11.3 

Hay  and  dry  fodders—- 
Corn   stover    

59.5 

1  7 

0.7 

32  4 

86  8 

2  8 

1  4 

43  4 

84  7 

7  6 

2  0 

38  4 

Cowpea   vine   hay    

89.3 

10.8 

1  1 

39  0 

90.8 

1.2 

0.8 

:!s  i> 

90  4 

0  4 

0  4 

30  3 

Grain  and  other  seed  — 

89.1 

79 

4  6 

66  7 

Oats    

89  0 

9  2 

4  2 

47  3 

Cowpcas     

87.8 

20.0 

0.8 

53  2 

Mill  products  — 

85  0 

5  5 

3  5 

63  S 

Wheat    bran    

88.1 

12.2 

2  7 

:i'i  •• 

Cottonseed    meal     

91.5 

38.1 

12.6 

Hi  i> 

RATIONS  FOR  FARM  ANIMALS  97 

Free  Bulletins,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture 
Farmers'  Bulletins. 

No.     22. — The  Feeding  of  Farm  Animals. 
No.     36. — Cotton  Seed  and  Its  Products. 
No.     49. — Sheep  Feeding. 
No.     58. — The  Soy  Bean  as  a  Forage  Crop. 
No.  170. — The  principles  of  Horse  Feeding. 

Protein  and  Carbohydrates   in  Feed 

Pounds  per  Bushel. 
Kind  of  Food.  Protein.     Carbohydrates. 

Dry  peas 10  32 

Rye    5  39 

Barley   : . .     4  32 

Corn    31/2  40 

Oats   3  19 

Table  showing  approximate  amounts  of  protein  and  carbo- 
hydrates required  daily  by  farm  animals  of  average  size: 

Animal.  Protein.     Carbohydrates. 

Dairy  cow  2  Ibs.  12  Ibs. 

Work  horse 2  Ibs.  12  Ibs. 

Calves  under  1  year  1  Ib.  6  Ibs. 

Pigs,  growing i/2  Ib.  2y2  Ibs. 

Lambs,  growing 1-5  Ib.  1  Ib. 

NOTE:  This  amount  varies  with  the  size  and  age  of 
the  animal.  Fattening  stock  can  be  profitably  fed  a 
greater  allowance  of  carbohydrates  in  the  form  of  grain, 
like  corn  and  barley. 

Problems 

1.  How  many  pounds  of  protein  in  a  bushel  of  oats? 
With  oats  at  30  cents  per  bushel,  what  does  this  pro- 
tein cost  per  pound,  disregarding  the  carbohydrates  ? 

2.  How  many  pounds  protein  in  a  bushel  of  barley? 


98  LESSONS   IN   AGRICULTURE 

With  barley  at  44  cents  per  bushel,  what  does  protein 
in  this  form  cost  per  pound  ? 

3.  Which  is  the  cheaper  feed  at  these  prices?    How 
much? 

4.  What  is  the  cost  per  pound  of  protein  in  rye  at 
60  cents  per  bushel? 

5.  What  is  the  cost  per  pound  of  protein  in  corn  at 
35  cents  per  bushel? 

6.  At  the  above  prices  which  is  the  cheapest  feed? 

7.  Which  is  probably  the  best   feed  for  fattening 
purposes  ?    Why  ? 

8.  Suppose  all  kinds  of  hay  sell  at  the  uniform  price 
of  $8  per  ton.    What  is  the  price  of  protein  per  pound 
in  each  of  the  four  kinds  of  hay  given  above? 

9.  Which  is  the  cheapest  feed  ? 

10.  What  is  the  best  kind  of  straw  to  feed,   and 
why?    How  do  we  find  the  "nutritive  ratio"?    What 
is  the  nutritive  ratio  of  clover  hay?     Is  it  a  balanced 
ration  ? 

11.  Find  the  nutritive  value  of  all  the  feeds  given 
in  the  tables. 

12.  Which  are  most  nearly  "perfect"  feeds — i.  e., 
which  have  a  ratio  of  about  6  to  1? 

13.  Which  are  the  poorest  feeds — i.  e.,  which  have  the 
lowest  ratio  of  protein?        , 

14.  Which  are  the  feeds  having  the  largest  propor- 
tion of  proteins  ?  , 

15.  Are  any  of  the  feeds  given  in  the  table  so.  poor 
that,  in  themselves,  they  are  practically  worthless?    If 
so,  name  them. 


BATIONS  FOR  FARM  ANIMALS  99 

Illustration. — One  ton  of  mixed  hay  contains  88  Ibs. 
protein  and  880  Ibs.  carbohydrates.  Its  ratio  is  1  to  10. 
Let  us  mix  it  with  some  other  feed  to  bring  the  ratio 
up  to  about  1  to  6.  We  shall  try  peas.  We  shall  feed 
1  bu.  of  ground  peas  with  every  hundred  Ibs.  of  hay. 

Feed.  Protein.       Carbohydrates. 

100  Ibs.  hay  contain 4.4  44 

60  Ibs.  peas  contain ....   10.  32 

160  Ibs.  mixed  contain...   14.4  76 

Dividing  weight  of  carbohydrates  by  that  of  protein 
(76  by  14.4)  we  get  a  ratio  of  about  1  to  5.  We  have 
more  protein  than  we  need.  Let  us  try  again  with  ^  bu. 
of  peas  instead. 

Feed.  Protein.       Carbohydrates. 

100  Ibs.  hay  contain 4.4  44 

30  Ibs.  peas  contain....     5.  16 

130  Ibs.  mixed  contain . . .     9.4  60 

Again  dividing  (60  by  9.4)  we  get  6.3,  about  right, 
and  a  much  cheaper  feed.  Now,  how  much  of  this  ration 
shall  we  feed  to  a  dairy  cow?  The  table  shows  us  that 
a  cow  needs  about  2  Ibs.  protein  daily,  so  this  will  be 
about  enough  for  five  days.  One-fifth  of  each  feed  will 
give  us  as  a  result  20  Ibs.  of  hay  and  6  Ibs.  of  peas  for 
the  daily  ration. 

16.  With  the  ration  given  in  the  illustration,  how 
long  will  a  ton  of  hay  last  a  cow? 

17.  How  many  bushels  of  ground  peas  will  be  re- 
quired in  the  same  time? 

18.  What  will  it  cost  to  feed  the  cow  for  this  time 
with  hay  at  $7  per  ton  and  peas  at  $1  per  bushel? 


100  LESSONS    TN    AGRICULTURE 

19.  Suppose  she  gives  25  pounds  of  milk  daily  on 
this  ration.     With   milk  at  $1.20  per    cwt,    what    is 
gained  ? 

20.  Make  a  ration  of  clover  hay  and  corn  in  the 
same  way  and  figure  its  cost. 

LESSON  XXX 

THE  DAIEY 

Dairy  products. — The  products  of  the  dairy  are  milk, 
butter,  and  cheese.  There  is  scarcely  a  man,  woman,  or 
child  in  the  civilized  world  who  does  not  use  every  day 
in  some  form  the  products  of  the  dairy.  The  farmer  who 
has  only  one  cow,  and  uses  her  milk  for  butter  or  for 
drinking,  has  a  dairy,  but  we  usually  think  of  dairies 
as  places  where  cows  are  kept  in  stables  and  fed  all  their 
feed  in  mangers  and  milked  to  supply  a  city  popula- 
tion. However,  most  of  the  milk  is  produced  on  farms, 
and  a  large  part  of  the  butter  is  made  there  also.  The 
use  of  the  cream  separator  is  increasing  on  the  farm. 
By  this  machine  the  cream  is  separated  from  the  milk 
soon  after  it  is  brought  from  the  cow,  and  only  the 
cream  need  be  hauled  to  the  factory,  if  the  farmer 
is  selling  it.  The  cream  separator  enables  the  farmer 
to  get  more  butter  than  by  any  other  method. 

Cleanliness. — In  the  dairy  the  most  important  item 
is  cleanliness.  There  is  probably  no  other  item  of  food 
more  difficult  to  keep  clean  than  milk.  The  dirt  which 
we  eat  in  milk  and  butter  would  astonish  us,  if  we 
could  see  it  separated.  Good,  pure,  sweet  milk  is  essen- 


THE  DAIRY 


101 


tial  both  for  health  and  for  profit  on  the  market.  Bad 
flavors  and  bad  odors  in  milk  are  caused  by  the  cows 
eating  improper  food  and  drinking  impure  water,  and 
by  uncleanliness  on  the  part 
of  the  dairyman  in  handling 
the  milk. 

Essentials  in  caring  for 
milk. — In  another  lesson  we 
shall  speak  of  little  plants 
called  bacteria,  which  live  at 
the  roots  of  the  legumes  and 
take  nitrogen  from  the  air 
to  help  make  the  plant  food. 
In  this  lesson  we  are  to 
learn  of  another  kind  of 
bacteria  living  in  milk  and 
causing  it  to  sour.  In  the 
first  place,  milk  sours  because 
bacteria  from  the  air  fall  into 
it,  begin  to  grow,  and 
soon  change  the  sugar  of  the 
milk  to  an  acid. 

These  bacteria  are  in  the  air,  in  water,  in  barn  dust, 
on  bits  of  hay,  and  on  the  cow.  They  are  most  plentiful 
in  sour  milk,  and  if  we  should  pour  a  little  sour  milk 
into  the  fresh  milk  the  latter  would  sour  more  quickly. 
The  same  thing  happens  when  people  put  fresh  milk 
into  poorly  cleaned  pails.  It  follows  that  all  utensils 
used  in  the  dairy  should  be  thoroughly  scalded  so  as  to 
kill  all  the  germs  that  cause  the  milk  to  sour  quickly. 


FIG.  33.     A  CREAM  SEPARATOR 


102  LESSONS    IN   AGRICULTURE 

Not  only  do  these  germs,  which  cause  the  souring  of 
the  milk,  get  into  it,  but  the  germs  of  consumption  and 
typhoid  fever  will  also  live  in  milk,  and  thus  endanger 
the  health  and  lives  of  all  who  drink  it.  The  following 
precautions  in  the  care  of  milk  should  be  known  to  all 
who  supply  us  with  this  valuable  food: 

1.  Avoid  pitching  hay  or  making  beddings  or  sweep- 
ing in  the  barn  soon  before  milking  time,  if  the  cows 
are  to  be  milked  in  the  barn,  for  more  germs  fall  into 
the  milk  if  the  air  is  full  of  dust. 

2.  The  milker  should  wear  clean  clothes,  should  have 
clean  hands,  and  should  never    wet    his    hands    with 
the  milk. 

3.  For  greater  cleanliness  and  safety  the  milkman 
should  curry  the  sides  of  the  cow,  and  moisten  the  parts 
nearest  him  to  prevent  dust  from  falling  from  the  cow 
into  the  milk. 

4.  The   first   few   streams   of  milk   from   each  teat 
should  be  thrown  away,  because  the  milk  at  the  mouth 
of  the  teat  has  been  exposed  to  the  air,  is  full  of  germs, 
and  will  cause  the  rest  of  the  milk  to  sour  sooner. 

5.  Every  vessel  used  in  the  handling  of  the  milk 
should  be  scrupulously  clean. 

6.  The  surface  of  the  milk  should  not  be  left  exposed 
to  the  air  of  the  cellar,  living  rooms,  or  any  place  where 
dust  and  germs  may  fall  into  it. 

7.  To  test  for  formalin  in  milk,  add  a  few  drops  of 
ferric  chloride,  then  pour  sulphuric  acid  into  the  milk, 
letting  it  run  down  the  side  of  the  glass.     A  purple 


THE  DAIRY 


103 


color  at  the  junction  of  the  milk  and  acid,  indicates 
the  presence  of  formalin. 

8.  Promptly  cool  and  aerate  the  milk  to  prevent  de- 
velopment of  bacteria. 

9.  The  cows  should  be  healthy,  especially  as  related 
to  tuberculosis. 

10.  The  stables  should  be  well  lighted  and  ventilated. 


Courtesy  Edgewood  Farm. 
FIG.  34.     A  MODEL  Cow  BARN 

Testing  and  selecting  the  cows. — The  butter  that 
milk  will  produce  comes  from  the  butter-fat  that  it  con- 
tains. It  is,  therefore,  important  that  the  milk  from 
each  cow  of  a  herd  test  well  in  butter  fat,  as  well  as  be 
abundant  in  quantity.  In  general,  no  cow  is  paying 
her  board  bill  whose  milk  tests  much  less  than  3  per  cent 
of  butter-fat;  neither  is  one  which  is  giving  less  than 
twelve  pounds  daily.  Every  farmer  should  own  a  good 


10-i  LESSONS    IN    AGRICULTURE 

cream  separator,  in  order  to  get  the  maximum  amount 
of  cream  and  butter-fat  that  the  herd  produces,  and 
also  a  Babcock  tester,  to  ascertain  whether  his  cows  are 
yielding  the  highest  percentage  of  butter-fat.  A  dis- 
cussion of  the  Babock  tester  will  follow  in  the  practical 
exercises. 

Practical  Exercises 

NOTE.  The  practical  exercises  for  this  lesson  follow 
as  separate  lessons  in  the  series. 

LESSON    XXXI 

COMPOSITION    OF   MILK 

Learn  the  following  facts  about  milk: 

M  ilk  consists  of  .about  seven-eighths  water  and  one- 
eighth  substances  in  solution  in  the  water,  or  floating 
in  it  in  very  small  particles.  You  may  be  surprised 
to  learn  that  so  large  a  proportion  of  milk  is  water. 
This  is  true  not  only  of  milk  but  of  many  of  our  most 
important  foods. 

The  constituents  of  milk  are  often  referred  to  as 
water  and  total  solids;  fat,  casein,  albumen,  sugar,  and 
ash.  A  chemist  can  separate  these  substances  with  great 
accuracy,  but  by  the  following  methods  we  can  make  a 
gross  analysis: 

1.  Leave  a  little  milk  in  a  saucer  for  a  short  time 
in  a  warm  place.     The  water  will  evaporate  and  leave 
the  solids  in  dry  form. 

2.  Separation  of  fat.     Let  a  quart  of  fresh  milk 
quietly  stand  in  a  shallow  pan,  in  a  cool  place,  until 
a  layer  of  cream  gathers  at  the  top.     This  cream  is 


COMPOSITION   OF   MILK  105 

formed  by  the  rising  of  tiny  globules  of  butter-fat, 
which  were  distributed  evenly  through  the  fresh  milk. 
The  fat  is  so  much  lighter  than  the  liquid  in  which  it 
floats  that  it  will  rise  in  the  cream  layer  in  about 
twelve  hours.  This  fat  is  a  constituent  of  butter  and 
of  some  forms  of  cheese. 

3.     Separation  of  casein.    Add  a  few  drops  of  acid, 


?3> 

cxr\-/ 


o 

o  •  ^p 

o 


o"  -•• 


<o;o° 

V'aQS  °o 


O     O    OQ 

o  ^'i?  °°  r^ 

o  OQ          vJ 


•o    O 

—       X^i 

o 


_     o 

Courtesy  of  B.  F.  Johnson  Pub.  Co. 
a.  Pure.  b.  Bacteria. 

FIG.  35.     PURE  AND  IMPURE  MILK 

vinegar  will  do,  to  the  skimmed  milk.  Soon  it  will 
thicken.  Gently  warm  it  now  to  about  one  hundred 
degrees  and  carefully  break  the  thickened  surface  with 
a  knife,  and  the  skimmed  milk  will  be  seen  to  separate 
into  curd  and  whey.  Now  strain  through  a  cloth,  and 
the  casein  will  remain  in  the  cloth,  while  the  whey 
passes  through.  This  casein  is  one  of  the  principal 
parts  of  cheese. 

4.  Separation  of  albumen.  Slowly  heat  the  whey 
to  160  degrees  Fahrenheit.  It  will  become  cloudy  and 
soon  a  soft  jelly-like  substance  will  collect  on  the  sur- 


106 


LESSONS    IN   AGRICULTURE 


face.    This  is  the  albumen.     This  can  now 
be  separated  by  straining. 

5.  Separation  of  sugar.     Take  a  small 
quantity  of  the  whey  from  which  the  albu- 
men has  been  separated,  place  in  a  saucer 
and  warm  gently  until  the  water  has  been 
evaporated.      A    dry    substance    remains. 
This  is  about  seven-eighths  milk-sugar  and 
one-eighth  ash. 

6.  Separation  of  ash.     It  will  not  be 
possible  to  separate  the  ash  and  sugar  in 
pure  form.    Heat  the  mixture  in  a  dish  or 
on  the  stove  cover,  and  allow  to  burn  as 


Water 


Fro.  36.    THE  CONSTITUENTS  OF  A  QUART  OF  MILK 
Fat  Casein  Albumen         Sugar 


Ash 


87  per  cent     4  per  cent     2.6  per  cent    .7  _per  cent     5  per  cent   .7  per  cent 
20.93  oz.  1.38  oz.  .80  oz.  .24  oz.          Ml  oz.  .24  oz. 

long  as  it  will.    The  small  residue  left  is  the  milk  ash. 
(Adapted  from  Cornell  Rural  School  Leaflet.) 


THE    BABCOCK    TEST 


107 


LESSON  XXXII 

THE  BABCOCK  TEST 

If  the  school  can  not  be  provided  with  a  Babcock 
tester,  this  lesson  will  have  to  be  omitted.  The  lesson 
is  such  an  important  one,  and  the  ownership  of  a  Bab- 
cock  tester  by  the  school 
would  be  such  a  valuable 
thing  for  the  whole  commu- 
nity, that  the  teacher  should 
make  every  effort  to  get  the 
material  for  this  lesson. 

Because  of  its  simplicity, 
accuracy,  and  ease  of  opera- 
tion, the  Babcock  test  has  be- 
come the  standard  test  for  de- 
termining the  value  of  milk 
and  cream  as  delivered  to  the 
cheese  factories,  creameries, 
and  all  milk  stations  over  this 
country. 

Complete  directions  for 
using  come  with  every  ma- 
chine, and  it  will  not  be  nec- 
essary to  give  them  here.  Ob- 
serve great  care  for  accuracy. 
Have  some  pupil  bring  a  sample  of  milk  from  one  of 
the  cows  at  home.  The  sample  should  be  taken  after 
the  milking  is  done,  and  the  milk  has  been  poured  two 
or  three  times  from  one  vessel  to  another  so  as  to  be 


Open. 


ClOMd. 

FIG.  37.     A  BABCOCK  TESTER 


108  LESSONS   IN   AGRICULTURE 

thoroughly  mixed.  Take  about  a  half  cupful  as  a  sam- 
ple and  put  it  into  a  clean  bottle.  From  this  bottle  the 
sample  is  drawn  for  testing,  after  mixing  the  contents 
of  the  bottle  thoroughly. 

Having  determined  the  per  cent  of  butter-fat  in  the 
sample,  an  estimate  can  be  made  of  the  total  amount 
of  butter-fat  in  a  gallon  of  milk.  (A  gallon  weighs 
8 14  pounds.) 

Make  many  tests  of  the  same  cow's  milk  to  determine 
its  richness.  A  pound  of  butter-fat  should  make,  in 
ordinary  practice,  about  1.1  pounds  of  butter,  and  the 
pupils  can  compare  the  price  paid  for  butter  and  for 
the  butter-fat,  if  sold  at  the  creameries,  and  determine 
which  method  of  sale  is  better. 

If  the  school  is  in  a  dairy  district,  this  lesson  will 
furnish  work  for  several  weeks,  and  be  profitable  to 
patrons  as  well  as  to  pupils. 

Free  Bulletins,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture 
Farmers'  Bulletins. 

No.  29.— Souring    of    Milk    and    Other     Changes    in    Milk 
Products. 

No.    42.— Facts  about  Milk. 

No.    55. — The  Dairy  Herd:    Its  Formation  and  Management. 

No.    57. — Butter  Making  on  the  Farm. 

No.    63.— Care  of  Milk  on  the  Farm. 

No.  151. — Dairying  in  the  South. 

No.  166. — Cheese  Making  on  the  Farm. 

No.  201. — The  Cream  Separator  on  Western  Farms. 

Problems 

1.  How  many  pounds  of  butter-fat  in  5,000  pounds 
of  milk  that  tests  4  per  centt 

2.  A  farmer  owns  a  herd  of  15  cows  that  average 
24  pounds  of  milk  per  head  daily.     How  many  pounds 
of  milk  does  he  get  in  six  months  (thirty  days  each)  ? 


THE    BABCOCK    TEST  109 

3.  If  this  milk  tests  3.5  per  cent,  and  butter-fat  is 
worth  25  cents  per  pound,  what  does  he  receive  monthly 
for  his  milk?    How  much  per  head? 

4.  A  farmer  has  a  herd  of  20  cows.     The  milk  for 
the  week  weighs  as  follows:    420  Ibs.,  418  Ibs.,  408  Ibs., 
422  Ibs.,  417  Ibs.,  432  Ibs.  and  423  Ibs.,  respectively.    It 
tests  5  per  cent  of  butter-fat,  the  price  of  which  is  30 
cents  per  pound.     How  much  do  the  cows  average  per 
head  in  money  for  this  week. 

5.  A  farmer  hauls  43,250  Ibs.  of  milk  that  tests  3.8 
per  cent  to  a  factory.     The  price  of  butter-fat  is  26 
cents  per  pound.    How  much  money  should  be  receive? 

6.  A   farmer  owns  six  cows:   Bess,   Spot,   Brindle, 
Bos,  Kate  and  Red. 

Bess  gives  22  Ibs.  of  milk  daily,  which  tests  3.8%, 

Spot  gives  15  Ibs.  of  milk  daily,  which  tests  4.2%, 

Brindle  gives  30  Ibs.  of  milk  daily,  which  tests  3.0%, 

Bos  gives  20  Ibs.  of  milk  daily,  which  tests  3.0%, 

Kate  gives  14  Ibs.  of  milk  daily,  which  tests  3.2%, 

Red  gives  24  Ibs.  of  milk  daily,  which  tests  5.2%. 

Figure  out  the  dairy  value  of  each.  Which  is  the  best 
cow  ?  The  poorest  one  ?  Classify  them  in  order  of  dairy 
value. 

7.  Figure  out  the  number  of  pounds  of  milk  given 
by  each  cow  in  a  month,  and  the  value  of  it  in  butter- 
fat  at  25  cents  per  pound. 

8.  Three  herds  of  ten  cows  each  are  compared:   The 
Friesians  average  30  Ibs.  of  milk  each  daily;  and  the 
scrub  herd  averages  10  Ibs.  daily.    The  Jerseys  test  5.4 


110  LESSONS   IN   AGRICULTURE 

per  cent;  the  Holstein-Friesians  test  3.2  per  cent;  and 
the  scrubs  test  3  per  cent.  Which  is  the  more  valuable 
herd? 

9.  With  butter-fat  at  30  cents  per  pound,  what  is 
the  monthly  average  per  cow  of  each  herd? 

LESSON  XXXIII 

POULTEY 

Poultry-raising  as  a  business. — Much  is  being  writ- 
ten in  the  farm  journals  and  popular  magazines  about 
poultry  raising,  and  many  "get-rich-quick"  schemes 
are  proposed  through  various  systems.  Much  of  this 
poultry  interest  comes  to  naught.  Nevertheless,  poul- 
try, if  properly  handled,  will  yield  large  returns,  both 
on  the  farm  and  in  the  city  lot.  Poultry  raising 
has  not  been  given  sufficient  attention  on  many  Ameri- 
can farms.  Fresh  eggs  and  well-fattened  young  fowls 
are  always  in  demand,  and  bring  a  high  price  on  the 
market.  The  proceeds  from  the  sale  of  eggs  and 
poultry  are  no  small  item  of  the  farm  income.  Poultry 
raising  is  a  profitable  business  when  thoughtfully  and 
intelligently  pursued. 

Care  of  poultry. — The  care  of  poultry,  as  in  the  case 
of  other  farm  animals,  must  include  the  proper  feed- 
ing and  shelter.  When  fowls  are  left  to  roam  and  seek 
their  food  at  will,  they  will  get  a  balanced  ration  among 
the  seeds  and  insects,  and  need  but  little  care  along 
this  line.  If  they  are  confined,  however,  the  food  must 
be  studied  and  properly  provided.  They  must  be  fed 


POULTRY  HI 

egg-producing  foods.  They  must  have  access  to  grit, 
oyster  shells,  charcoal,  sand,  ground  bone  and  the  like, 
to  be  used  in  grinding  their  food,  and  out  of  which  to 
make  egg  shells.  They  must  have  food  rich  enough  in 
protein,  such  as  meat  scraps,  skim-milk,  alfalfa  meal, 
scratch-food,  and  table-scraps.  Green  foods  like  beets, 
cabbage,  turnips,  and  silage  should  be  given  them  in 
the  winter.  They  should  have  an  abundance  of  fresh 


FIG.   38.     COLONY  POULTRY  HOUSES 

water.  Hens  fed  entirely  on  corn  will  not  lay  well, 
because  corn  is  a  fat  and  heat-producing  food,  and  eggs 
are  made  mostly  of  protein  food. 

The  poultry  houses. — Two  systems  of  housing  fowls 
are  in  use  by  poultry  men  and  farmers:  (1)  The  colony 
house,  and  (2)  the  continuous  apartment  house.  Each 
system  has  its  advantages.  Expensive  poultry  houses 
are  not  necessary  for  success  with  poultry.  The  chief 


LESSONS    IN    AGRICULTURE 

requirements  are:  (1)  A  well-drained  soil.  (2)  Houses 
should  face  the  south  or  southeast,  as  the  coldest  winds 
are  thus  shut  off  and  the  most  sunshine  is  secured.  (3) 
Cleanliness  is  absolutely  necessary.  Houses  should  be 
constructed  so  that  they  can  be  sprayed  or  whitewashed 
easily.  The  best  method  is  to  have  every  thing  remov- 
able so  that  scalding  water  and  sunshine  can  be  used 
as  cleansing  agents  when  necessary.  Feed  hoppers, 
nest  racks  and  other  appliances  should  hang  on  the  wall 
or  stand  on  blocks.  (4)  Ventilation  should  be  secured 
either  by  open-front  houses  or  by  some  ventilator  of 
approved  design.  (5)  There  should  be  no  draft  on  the 
fowls  at  night.  Perches  should  be  placed  in  the  most 
protected  parts  of  the  house.  (6)  Since  exercise  is 
necessary,  both  for  egg  production  and  for  health,  a 
place  for  scratching  should  be  provided — a  place  where 
they  can  get  to  dry  dirt  and  wallow  in  it.  Dust  acts  as 
a  sort  of  insect  powder,  filling  up  the  insects'  breathing 
pores,  and  thus  keeps  the  chickens  free  from  lice.  The 
chickens  may  be  forced  to  exercise  by  scratching  in 
chaff  or  straw  for  their  food,  or  jumping  for  bites  of 
cabbage  or  beets  hanging  over  them. 

Breeds  of  fowls. — The  varieties  of  fowls  selected  for 
farm  use  will  depend  largely  on  the  purposes  for  which 
they  are  grown.  Breeds  such  as  the  Leghorns  and 
Minorcas  are  desirable  for  their  laying  qualities;  the 
Brahmas  and  Cochins,  for  their  meat ;  and  the  Plymouth 
Rock,  the  Wyandottes,  and  the  Orpingtons,  for  general 
purposes,  giving  good  returns  both  as  layers  and  for 
meat  production.  The  bulletins  named  below  will  be 


POULTRY  113 

of  value  to  the  student,  and  to  the  practical  poultry 
raiser. 

Free  Bulletins,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture 
Farmers'  Bulletins. 

No.    51. — Standard  Varieties  of  Chickens. 

No.    64. — Ducks  and  Geese,  Breeds,  and  Management. 

No.  141. — Poultry  Raising  on  the  Farm. 

No.  177. — Squab  Raising. 

No.  200. — Turkeys,  Varieties,  and  Management. 


PIG.  39.     HENS   NEED  SHADE  DURING  HOT  SUMMER 
Problems 

1.  A  flock  of  60  hens  average  80  eggs  a  year  each. 
With  eggs  worth  15  cents  per  dozen,  what  is  the  value 
of  these  eggs? 

2.  How  many  bushels  of  corn  will  this  buy  at  40 
cents  per  bushel  ?    Of  oats  at  25  cents  ? 

3.  Suppose  it  takes  only  12  bushels  of  corn,  5  bushels 
of  oats  and  $7  worth  of  other  food  to  keep  this  flock  for 
one  year,   besides  what  they  pick  up   for  themselves. 
What  is  the  profit  over  and  above  the  cost  of  the  feed? 


114  LESSONS    IN    AGRICULTURE 

4.  What  would   have  been  the  profit  if  they   had 
laid  120  eggs  each,  instead  of  80  ? 

5.  Ask  pupils  to  furnish  data  for  at  least  twenty 
other  similar  problems. 

LESSON  XXXIV 

1.     A    STUDY   OF    FEATHERS 

Have  a  fowl  in  the  schoolroom  a  few  hours  before  the 
lesson  is  given.  Encourage  the  children  to  find  out  as 
many  facts  as  they  can  for  themselves  before  the  school 
opens  for  work.  Direct  the  observations  of  the  pupils 
by  a  few  questions,  as :  the  kind  of  feathers ;  the  location 
of  the  different  kinds ;  any  part  of  the  body  not  covered 
with  feathers.  Suggest  a  little  competition  by  asking 
which  boy  or  girl  can  give  the  greatest  number  of  facts 
from  his  observation  of  the  feathers  of  the  fowl. 

At  class  time,  the  teacher  should  remove  the  fowl  from 
the  coop  and  hold  it  firmly  by  the  legs  to  prevent  fright 
and  injury.  Allow  the  children  to  come  near. 

1.  Have  the  pupils  feel  the  difference  between  the 
heat  of  the  fowl's  body  beneath  the  feathers  and  on  the 
outside  of  the  feathers.    Explain.    Bring  out  the  point 
that  the  feathers  are  non-conducting.     What  purpose 
does  this  serve  the  fowl  ? 

2.  Spread  the  wings  and  tail  so  that  the  different 
feather  sections  may  be  seen.     Note  that  in  the  wing 
and  tail,  one  feather  overlaps  the  other  so  that  each 
feather  braces  the  other  in  flight. 

3.  Observe    the    lighter    wing    feathers    (the    sec- 


STUDY    OF    FEATHERS 


115 


ondaries)   tucked  under  the  heavier  feathers   (the  pri- 
maries).    What  kind  of  feathers  are  in  the  tail?    Are 


PIG   40.     THE  FEATHERS  OF  A  CHICKEN 

Showing  their  relative  size,  shape  and  position.  1.  Neck  hackle. 
2.  Breast.  3.  Wing  shoulder  covert.  4.  Wing  flight  covert.  5.  Wing 
primary.  6.  Wing  secondary.  7.  Wing  covert.  8.  Back.  9.  Cushion. 
10.  Main  tail.  11.  Fluff.  12.  Thigh. 

they  different  from  those  of  the  wing?     What  use  do 
the  tail  feathers  serve? 

4.  Notice  how  the  back  feathers  overlap  each  other. 
Why  this  arrangement?  If  the  feathers  shed  easily 
without  pain  to  the  fowl,  take  out  a  feather  from  each 


116 


LESSONS    IX    AGRICULTURE 


of  the  following  places  and  fasten  on  a  sheet  of  paper 
for  comparison:  1.  Neck  feather;  2.  Breast  feather;  :{ 
Wing  shoulder  covert ;  4.  Wing  flight  covert ;  5.  Wing 
primary ;  6.  Wing  secondary ;  7:  Wing  covert ;  8.  Back ; 
9.  Cushion;  10.  Main  tail;  11.  Fluff;  and  12.  Thigh.  See 
figure  for  corresponding  numbers. 

4.  Make  drawing  sketches  of  these  feathers. 

5.  Make  a  drawing  of  a  large  primary  feather,  and 
name  the  parts:  fluff,  tip,  quill,  barb,  and  web. 


LESSON  XXXV 

2.     THE    EGO 

Each  pupil  in  the  class  should  bring  a  few  eggs  to 
form  a  collection  for  this  lesson. 

1.     Tabulate  in  the  note-book  the  record  of  the  collec- 
tion as  follows : 

(Number  each  egg  with  ink  on  the  shell.) 


Thfi 

Bn»ed 

Size    |    Weight 

Form 

Pupil's 
Name 

Date 

No.  of 
EM 

2.  After  this  data  has  been  recorded,  a  small  hole 
might  be  broken  in  each  end  of  the  egg,  the  blow  pipe 
or  straw  inserted,  and  the  contents  blown  out,  so  that 
the  egg  shell  may  be  preserved  in  a  neat  box  as  part  of 
an  interesting  collection.  From  time  to  time,  pupils 
might  be  encouraged  to  get  the  shells  from  the  eggs 


THE    EGG  117 

that  are  used  at  home  to  add  to  the  collection.  The 
contents  of  the  eggs,  blown,  should  be.  held  in  saucers, 
one  to  each  pupil. 

3.  Observe  the  structure   of  the  raw   eggs  in  the 
saucers.    Find  the  "germinal  disc"  which  appears  as  a 
light  colored  spot,  usually  on  the  upper  surface  of  the 
yolk.     This  germ  spot  contains  the  life  principle  of  the 
egg.     Note  the  whitish  cords  of  denser  albumen  which 
serve  to  keep  the  yolk  properly  suspended  in  the  white 
of  the  egg. 

Note  the  clear,  watery  appearance  of  the  white  of 
the  egg.  This  is  the  albumen,  the  food  in  liquid  form 
upon  which  the  young  chick  lives  while  in  the  shell.  (If 
the  contents  do  not  come  out  whole,  another  egg  must  be 
broken  for  this  part  of  the  lesson.) 

4.  The  chemical  composition  of  the  dry  substance 
of  the  inside  of  the  egg  is  (Snyder:  Poultry  Book.)  : 

Protein.  Fat, 

White  (albumen)    88.92  .53 

Yolk   20.62  64.43 

5.  Make  a  drawing  of  the  egg  shell   obtained  above. 

6.  If  it  is  not  possible  to  boil  the  eggs  at  the  school, 
ask  each  pupil  to  bring  a  boiled  egg  for  this  part  of  the 
study. 

Carefully  remove  the  shell  piece  by  piece.  Observe 
the  air  space,  and  the  two  membranes  beneath  the  shell. 
Cut  the  egg  lengthwise  through  the  middle,  and  make 
a  drawing  of  the  section,  showing  all  the  points  men- 
tioned in  paragraph  3. 


DECEMBER 

On  the  farm. — December  is  a  good  month  for  the 
farmer  to  balance  his  books  and  see  whether  his  manage- 
ment has  been  profitable  or  unprofitable.  The  success- 
ful farmer  will  know  whether  each  field  is  yielding  up 
to  the  standard  every  year.  He  will  know  whether 
his  farm  animals  are  paying  their  board.  He  will  know 
how  much  money  he  should  spend  and  how  much  he 
should  save  to  be  progressive.  To  be  able  to  manage 
the  farm  as  a  successful  merchant  does  his  business,  the 
farmer  must  keep  records  and  books  in  some  simple  and 
accurate  way. 

LESSON  XXXVI 

FARM   ACCOUNTS 

Keeping  accounts. — Every  farmer  should  keep 
accounts.  Often  it  is  desirable  to  know  how  much  cash 
is  received  and  paid  out  during  the  year.  A  simple 
cash  account  will  show  this.  All  kinds  of  accounts  re- 
quire two  columns.  The  columns  may  be  placed  side  by 
side,  with  double  ruling  down  the  center  of  the  page, 
dividing  them.  This  method  will  be  used  in  this  lesson. 
The  following  explanation  of  the  cash  account  system  is 
taken  from  Hatch's  Elementary  Agriculture  with  Prac- 
tical Arithmetic: 

Cash  accounts. — In  keeping  a  cash  account  the  word 
cash  is  first  written  across  the  top  of  the  page.  All 

118 


FARM   ACCOUNTS 


119 


cash  received  is  placed  in  the  cash  space  in  the  left- 
hand  side,  and  all  cash  paid  out  is  placed  in  the  cash 
space  in  the  right-hand  side.  At  the  extreme  left  of 
each  side  the  date  is  placed,  and  between  the  date  and 
the  cash  space  the  item,  for  which  cash  has  been  re- 
ceived or  paid,  is  written.  The  total  amount  of  cash 
received,  or  paid  out,  is  easily  found  by  adding  the 
amounts  on  each  side,  and  the  difference  of  these  two 
sums  represents  the  cash  on  hand.  Cash  on  hand  should 
be  carried  over  into  the  received  side  at  the  top  of  the 
next  page,  when  any  page  is  filled  up  with  entries.  If  it 
is  desired,  the  totals  may  be  carried  over  into  their 
respective  columns  instead,  and  the  new  page  kept  in 
exactly  the  same  way  as  the  preceding  page.  This  is  all 
there  is  in  keeping  a  cash  account.  It  is  a  very  simple 
and  easy  thing  to  do.  For  example : 

Cash 


Date      | 

Date      1 

1905                     Item 

Rec'd             1905 

Item 

Paid 

1        1 

1        ll             1 

| 

Jan. 

1 

Cash  on   hand.  . 

$  24 

40 

Jan. 

2 

Groceries     

$  3 

no 

3 

102 

75 

IT 

14 

•to 

Jan. 

30 

For    butter     .  .  . 

42 

84 

1  Jan. 

17 

For   books    .... 

5 

00 

Feb. 

1 

For    eggs    

2 

25 

Jan. 

20 

For    overcoat  .  . 

12 

00 

1 

Feb. 

1 

For     rubbers.  .  . 

75 

Balance  the  above  account  and  determine  how  much 
cash  is  on  hand  Feb.  1,  1905. 

Personal  accounts. — In  a  personal  account  the  name 
of  the  person  is  written  across  the  top  of  the  page,  and 


120 


LESSONS    IN    AGRICULTURE 


the  record  is  kept  as  in  the  cash  account.  Whenever 
the  person  against  whom  the  account  is  made  receives 
anything,  an  entry  is  made  on  the  left-hand  side  under 
the  word  debtor,  and  when  he  pays  anything  on  this 
account,  this  entry  is  made  on  the  right-hand  side  under 
the  word  creditor.  The  following  example  is  taken  from 
Hatch's  Agriculture: 


FIG.  41.     Goou  MATEHIAI.   FOK  A   PKODUCE  ACCOUNT 
John   Smith 


Da 

191 

te 

)5 

Item 

Di 

Da 
190 

te 
5 

Item 

Cr 

Sept. 

22 

To  1  pig  .... 

$12 

50 

Oct. 

3 

By  S  d'ys1  wk  . 

$  •) 

0 

Oct. 

in 

By  cash 

2 

,   <l 

Oct. 

75 

By  1  d'y's  wk. 

1 

50 

Oct 

M 

By  i>al.   cash. 

4 

II 

112 

50 

$U' 

r,ii 

Produce  accounts. — A  produce  account  is  a  record 
of  the  receipts  and  expenditures  on  certain  crops  or 
animals.  Suppose  that  you  wanted  to  keep  an  account 


FARM   ACCOUNTS 


121 


of  your  chickens.  The  word  chickens  is  written  across 
the  top  of  the  page.  Whenever  there  are  any  expendi- 
tures made  for  the  chickens,  this  is  entered  on  the  left- 
hand  side  of  the  page  under  debtor.  Whenever  the 
chickens  return  an  income  in  the  form  of  eggs  or  young 
chickens,  this  entry  is  made  on  the  right,  under  the 
word  creditor.  The  account  below  is  taken  from  Hatch 's 
book: 

Chickens 


Date 
1905 

Item 

Dr. 

Date 
1905 

Item 

Cr. 

May 
June 

1 

2 

To    1'mb'.,    c'ps. 

$  3 

20 
75 

May 
June 

July 

30 
30 

30 

By  e'gs  f'r  mo. 
By  e'gs  f'r  mo. 

By  e'gs   f'r  mo. 

$  2 

1 

2 

50 
80 

10 

June- 
Aug. 

30 
1 

To    corn    meal  . 
To   corn    

2 
3 

40 
00 

Oct. 
Oct. 

1 
1 

By  y'g  ch'kens. 
By  yg.   ch.   etn  . 

6 
3 

00 

00 

Oct. 

1 

Profit     

10 

05 

Oct. 

1 

By   eggs  e't'n.  . 

4 
$19 

00 
40 

$19 

40 

AVhat  does  the  above  account  show  as  to  profit  or  loss 
on  the  investment? 

LESSON  XXXVII 

1.     THE  YEAR'S   ACCOUNT   BY  MONTHS 
Prepare  twelve  pages  in  your  agricultural  note-book, 
one  for  each  month  of  the  year.     Use  the  cash  account 
svstem  as  shown  below : 


122 


LESSONS    IN    AGRICULTURE 
Cash 


Date 
1905 


Item 


Rec'd 


Data 

1905 


Item 


Paid 


Jan. 

1 

Cash    on    hand. 

$  24 

40 

Jan. 

? 

Groceries    

$  3 

III! 

Jan. 

8 

For   hogs    

102 

75 

Jan. 

15 

For  coal    

14 

in 

Jan. 

30 

For    butter  .... 

42 

84 

Jan. 

17 

For    books    .... 

5 

(III 

Beginning  with  September  of  our  year  on  the  farm, 
fill  out  the  receipts  and  expenditures  of  each  month,  esti- 
mating them  as  best  you  can  from  the  probable  accounts 
of  the  general  farming  operations  upon  this  farm  for 
an  average  year. 

What  should  be  a  fair  net  income  from  a  forty-acre 
farm,  providing  the  farmer  does  as  much  of  the  labor 
himself  as  he  can? 


LESSON  XXXVIII 

2.  CEOP  RECORDS 

It  is  an  important  business  matter  for  the  farmer  to 
keep,  year  by  year,  a  record  of  the  production  of  each 
field.  This  lesson  should  impress  upon  the  pupils  the 
importance  of  keeping  such  records  neat  and  accurate. 
Use  the  form  below,  and  require  each  pupil  to  keep  a 
record  of  one  of  the  fields  at  his  own  home.  Neatly  fill 
out  the  form  in  the  agricultural  note-book,  and  add  the 
data  from  time  to  time  as  the  field  is  farmed. 


Name P.    O 

Crop Previous    Crop . 

Kind   of   Soil No.    of   Acres  .  . 


Date  of  plowing.  . 
Depth  of  plowing. 
Cost  of  plowing.  .  . 


Preparation  of  the  Soil 

Date   of   cultivation.... 

Implement    used    

Cost  of  prep,   seed   bed. 


CROP   RECORDS  133 


Seeding  and  Cultivation 


Date  of  seeding 

Amount    of    seed 

Cost    of   seed 

Fertilizer   used    


Cost    of    fertilizer 

Dates  of  cultivation.. 
Implements  used  .... 
Cost  of  cultivation  .  . . 


Harvest 


Date   of  harvest 

Cost    of    harvest 

Total  cost  of  the  crop. 

Insect   injury    

Fungous    injury    


Quality  of  the  harvest. 

Yield,    grain    

Yield,    fodder    

Yield  per  acre 

Net   profit   per   acre.... 


NOTE:  In  connection  with  this  lesson  it  would  be  a 
valuable  supplementary  exercise  to  establish  a  school 
bank.  The  pupils  of  the  school  should  elect  a  president, 
board  of  directors,  cashier,  and  clerk.  The  teacher 
should  provide  a  suitable  receptacle  for  money  deposits 
and  the  proper  bank  books,  checks,  etc.  Encourage  the 
pupils  to  make  deposits,  keep  bank  books,  and  draw  out 
money  only  with  properly  signed  checks.  Our  boys  and 
girls  should  become  familiar  with  these  simple  business 
proceedings. 

LESSON   XXXIX 

3.  RECORD  OF  A  GOOD  CROP  ROTATION 

Compare  the  data  given  in  the  ten-acre'  rotation  below, 
with  prices  and  conditions  in  your  home  vicinity.  The 
figures  below  are  the  actual  record  of  an  Illinois  field 
under  standard  conditions  of  cultivation: 

A  Good  Typical  Ledger  Ruling 

1.  Clover  sown  In  wheat  in  March — 

Number    of    bushels     1 

Cost    of    seed    $6. 50 

Cost    of    labor    $1.25 

2.  Wheat   cut   in   July.     Threshed  and   marketed — 

Yield,    bushels    200 

Value    of    yield     $160.00 

Total    cost   of    labor $17-50 


124  LESSONS   IN   AGRICULTURE 

3.     Pasture  in  clover  In  the  Fall — 

Number   of   head    

Number  of   months    

Income    from    pasture    $  12.00 

4     Clover  hay  harvested  next  June — 

Number   of   tons    12 

Price    per    ton    $fi.OO 

Cost    of    labor    $12.00 

5.  Clover  seed  crop  In  the  Fall.     Husked  and  marketed — 

Number   bushels   yield    IS 

Value   of  yield    $90.00 

Cost    of    labor    $20.00 

6.  Plow  for  corn   the   following  Spring,   and   plant — 

Cost   of   labor    $10.00 

Cost  of  seed    (1%   bushels) $1.00 

Four    cultivations — cost    of    labor    for   cultivation $7.50 

7.  Seeding  wheat  In  the  corn  In  September — 

Cost   seed    i'l%    bushels   per   acre) $12.00 

Cost    of    labor    $4.00 

8.  Corn  harvest  In  the  Fall — 

Number   of   bushels    .  . ... 500 

Value    of    the    yield $200.50 

Cost  of  labor    $15.00 

Calculate  the  total  cost  and  receipts  of  this  rotation, 
and  the  net  gain  on  one  acre  for  one  year. 

The  last  census  shows  that  the  average  annual  crop 
per  acre  in  this  country  is  valued  at  $11.  How  does 
this  annual  crop  compare  with  the  average? 

What  does  the  farm  upon  which  you  live  yield  per 
acre? 

What  crops  yield  the  highest  net  returns  per  acre  in 
your  locality? 

Problems 

1.  A  farmer's  boy  hires  out  to  a  neighbor  for  five 
months  at  $22  per  month.  He  begins  work  April  1, 
with  $7.35  cash  on  hand.  He  receives  his  pay  at  the 
end  of  every  month.  April  2,  he  pays  $2.75  for  shoes. 
April  20,  25c  for  a  straw  hat.  May  3,  he  spends  $1.25 
for  a  coat.  May  31,  he  buys  a  colt  for  $42.  July  1, 


CROP    RECORDS  125 

he  pays  $14.75  for  more  clothing.  July  4,  he  spends 
$2.35.  July  20,  he  sells  his  colt  for  $55.  August  15,  he 
pays  $6.50  for  a  watch,  and,  during  the  summer  he 
spends  $4.85  for  sundry  small  articles. 

Write  out  his  account  and  determine  how  much  cash 
he  has  on  hand  when  his  time  is  out. 

2.  Two  boys  rent  for  $4  a  half  acre  of  land  on  which 
to  plant  onions.  They  allow  themselves  75c  each  per  day 
for  their  time.    It  costs  them  $2  to  get  this  piece  of  land 
fertilized  and  plowed.    They  each  spend  ten  days'  time 
planting  and  cultivating  their  onions,  and  four  days 
more  each  when  harvesting  time  comes.    They  sell  $14.30 
worth  of  green  onions,  and  harvest  142  bushels  more. 
For  100  bushels  they  get  75c  per  bushel,  and  60c  per 
bushel  for  the  remainder. 

Write  out  their  onion  account,  and  find  their  profit. 

3.  A  farmer  runs  an  account  with  George  White,  a 
merchant.    July  7,  he  buys  a  pair  of  shoes  for  $2.40  and 
has  them  charged  on  account.     July  20,  he  takes  in 
twelve  dozen  of  eggs  at  11  cents  per  dozen  and  gets  50c 
worth  of  sugar.     August  3,  he  takes  in  twelve  pounds 
of  butter  at  20  cents  per  pound  and  gets  nine  yards  of 
calico  at  6  cents  per  yard,  one  pound  of  tea  at  50  cents, 
four  pounds  of  coffee  at  18  cents  per  pound,  and  a  bar- 
rel of  salt  at  $1.25.    August  14,  he  gets  a  pail  of  fish  at 
75  cents  and  100  pounds  of  sugar  at  5l/2  cents  per 
pound,  and  pays  $2  in  cash.    How  does  his  account  stand 
on  August  15  ? 

Write  out  this  account  with  Geo.  White. 


126 


LESSONS    IN    AGRICULTURE 

LESSON  XL 


4.     COMPARISON    OF    AGRICULTUEE    PRODUCTS 

Take  the  data  from  the  Year-book  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  for  1905,  and  fill  out  the  tabulation 
below : 


CORN 

WHEAT 

OATS 

HAT 

STATES                         |  Acres  IValuo  |  Acres  |  Value  |  Acres  {Value  |Acre*  IValue 

New    York     ... 

West    Virginia    

Ohio     

h 


Indiana     

Illinois     



Pennsylvania    

Virginia    

Georgia     

Alabama     

Iowa    

Kentucky      

Maryland     



Compare  the  products  of  your  state  with  those  of 
other  states. 

Construct  a  similar  table  for  the  data  on  live  stock. 

1.  Horses :  number  and  value. 

2.  Mules :  number  and  value. 

3.  Milch  cows :  number  and  value. 

4.  Sheep :  number  and  value. 

5.  Hogs :  number  and  value. 

The  Year-book  may  be  secured  free  from  the  De- 
partment of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C.,  through 
your  Congressman  or  Senator. 


127 


LESSON  XLI 

5.     AN    ASSESSMENT    OF    FAEM    VALUES 

(a)     Make  a  list  of  the  real  and  personal  property 

owned  by  your  parents,  with  values  such  as  could  be 

received  from  sale.     Use  the  form  given  below,  and 

make  a  neat  record  of  the  assessment  in  the  notebook : 

Assessment  Record 


PROPERTY                                           | 

Number     | 

Valuation 

1.     Acres   of   land    

2.     Buildings     

4.     Cattle     

5.      Sheep     

6.      Hogs      

7.     Poultry    

8.     Farm    machinery     

9.     Oats     

10.     Wheat     

11.     Corn    

12.      Household    furniture    . 

13.      Hay     

14.      Money   in  bank    or  notes  

Total     

Rate   of   taxation    

Total   tax    

(b)  Use  the  above  form  and  fill  out  the  assessment 
record  of  our  forty -acre  farm  as  you  think  it  should  be 
equipped. 

LESSON  XLII 

FAEM  MACHINERY 

The  drudgery  of  farm  life  is  gradually  being  reduced 
by  the  invention  and  improvement  of  farm  tools  and 
machines.  Improvement  in  kitchen  machinery  comes 
slowest  of  all  upon  the  farm,  but  with  the  progress  of 
domestic  science,  we  may  look  for  much  improvement 
in  kitchen  equipment.  The  following  comparisons  show 
the  great  development  in  farm  implements. 


128  LESSONS    IN    AGRICULTURE 

THE    OLD  WAY                                         THE  NEW   WAY 

The  hoe.  The  horse-drawn    cultivator. 

The  gram  tickle.  The  horse  mower  and   rake. 

The  grain   cradle.  The  steam-drawn   harvester. 

The  single  plow.  The  steam   gang  plow. 

The  corn  knife.  The  corn  reaper  and  husker. 

The  "up  and  down  churn  "  The  "quick  coming"   churn. 

The  open  crock.  The  cream  separator. 

Points  in  the  care  of  farm  machinery : 

1.  The  farmer  must  know  how  to  manage  his  ma- 
chine. 

2.  Farm  machines  must  not  be  left  in  the  field  to 
rust  and  rot. 

3.  As  soon  as  any  tool  or  machine  has  finished  its 
work  for  the  season  it  should  be  carefully  cleaned,  oiled 
and  housed. 

4.  Every   machine,    implement,   and   vehicle   should 
be  properly  oiled. 

5.  All  needed  repairs  should  be  promptly  made. 

6.  "Such  care,  which  is  neither  costly  nor  burden- 
some, will  add  many  years  to  the  life  of  a  machine." 

Practical  Exercises 

If  the  school  is  in  a  town,  the  teacher  should  go 
with  the  class  to  an  implement  store  and  observe  the 
different  farm  machines,  tools,  and  implements. 

Make  a  list  of  the  different  kinds  of  plows,  harrows, 
reapers,  planters,  and  grain  separators  that  you 
know  of. 

Each  pupil  should  make  a  list  of  the  different  farm 
implements  at  his  home,  and  the  make  of  each  im- 
plement. 

NOTE. — Some  farm  machine  or  implement,  such  as 
the  plow,  should  be  brought  to  school,  to  be  taken  apart 
and  set  up  again  by  the  pupils. 


OUTLOOK— WEST    VIRGINIA    TYPE   STATE       129 

LESSON  XLIII 

AGRICULTURAL     OUTLOOK— WEST     VIRGINIA     AS     A 
TYPE    STATE 

Geographical  and  climatic  conditions  seem  to  indi- 
cate that  there  are  three  principal  agricultural  opera- 
tions which  would  pay  the  farmers  of  West  Virginia  to 
develop : 

1.  Fruit-growing.— Many  hillsides,  poorly  adapted 
to  grain  cultivation,  would  produce  profitable  orchards 
of  apple,  peach,  cherry,  and  other  smaller  fruits.    Some 
of  the  best  fruit  plantations  of  the  United  States  are 
in  West  Virginia,  and  what  has  been  done  in  one  place 
can  be  done  in  many  other  parts  of  the  state,  for  the 
conditions  of  successful  fruit  culture  are  similar.     It 
would  be  better  for  the  soil  of  many  farms,  and  for 
the  purses  of  many  farmers  were  their  hillsides  planted 
to  fruit  trees,  rather  than  to  grain  fields  with  weed- 
filled  washouts. 

2.  Dairying,  grazing,  and  stock  raising. — West  Vir- 
ginia has  ranked  among  the  first  states  in  the  produc- 
tion of  fme-wooled  sheep,  and  there  is  no  reason  that 
this  rank  should  not  be  maintained.     The  hills  will 
produce  the  finest  of  blue  grass,  timothy,  and  clover, 
and  there  are  many  natural  advantages  which  may  be 
used  in  the  winter  protection  of  the  flock.     The  in- 
creased demand  for  dairy  products  should  encourage 
grazing  and  cattle  raising.     With  the  improvement  of 
country  roads,  and  the  extension  of  the  railroads  and 
trolleys,  the  sale  of  milk,  butter,  and  live  stock  will  be 


130  LESSONS    IN   AGRICULTURE 

greatly  facilitated,  and  the  dairy  business   become   a 
profitable  agricultural  operation  in  the  state. 

3.  Truck  gardening. — As  the  mines,  and  wells  of 
oil  and  gas  are  developed  throughout  the  state,  more 
and  more  laborers  leave  the  farm  and  become  consum- 
ers of  farm  products  rather  than  producers.  In  the 
many  mining  towns  which  have  sprung  up  in  all  parts 
of  West  Virginia  are  thousands  of  laborers  who  do 
not  even  have  a  kitchen  garden.  The  homes  of  these 
men  must  be  supplied  with  the  vegetables  and  prod- 
ucts of  the  farm.  If  West  Virginia  farms  and  gar- 
dens do  not  furnish  these,  those  of  other  states  will. 
There  are  many  fertile  valleys  and  fields  near  these 
industrial  centers  that  could  produce  far  more  than 
they  now  do,  toward  supplying  the  demand  for  food 
products. 

Practical  Exercises 

Students  of  other  states  using  this  book  should  write 
similar  paragraphs  upon  the  agricultural  outlook  of 
their  own  state,  using  this  lesson  on  West  Virginia  as  a 
type. 


JANUARY 

On  the  farm. — There  is  little  outdoor  work  to  do  on 
the  farm  this  month.  It  is  a  good  month  in  which  to 
read  and  to  plan  for  the  coming  year.  These  are  the 
farmers'  days  of  leisure  when  the  demands  of  his  call- 
ing are  not  so  exacting  as  usual,  when  he  and  those 
of  his  household  may  enjoy  the  accumulated  fruitage 
of  the  year.  But  the  wise  farmer  will  not  waste  his 
time  even  now.  Live  stock  are  to  be  fed  and  cared 
for,  farm  conveniences  are  to  be  planned,  and  systems 
of  cropping  worked  out.  In  school  the  class  in  agri- 
culture may  profitably  study  soils  and  fertilizers  this 
month. 

LESSON  XLIV 

COUNTRY  LIFE   CONVENIENCES 

Stay  on  the  farm. — Why  do  the  young  people  leave 
the  farm  in  such  great  numbers  to  go  to  the  city?  Per 
haps  the  boys  and  girls  who  read  these  pages  could 
give  a  better  answer  than  the  statesmen  and  professors 
who  are  trying  to  answer  this  question.  The  usual  an- 
swer given  and  the  one  most  nearly  correct,  perhaps, 
is  that  young  people  leave  the  farm  because  they  can- 
not make  enough  money  there,  and  because  the  social 
life  and  home  conveniences  are  not  attractive.  Al- 
though the  country  people  do  not  receive  for  their  prod- 

131 


132  LESSOXS    IX   AGRICULTURE 

ucts  a  just  share  of  what  the  consumer  pays,  there  are 
brighter  days  ahead,  and  with  better  legislation,  closer 
organization,  and  more  education  for  the  farmer,  the 
country  boys  and  girls  are  going  to  have  as  good  a 
chance  to  enjoy  the  best  things  of  life  as  their  city 
cousins  have. 

Conveniences  in  the  country. — Country  life  conven- 
iences are  already  coming,  and  from  the  kitchen  to  the 
church  the  work  and  life  of  the  country  is  becoming 
more  interesting  and  attractive.  There  is  no  reason 
why  the  country  home  can  not  have  its  hot  and  cold 
water  supply  with  sanitary  plumbing.  It  would  cost 
no  more  than  a  good  team  of  horses  or  an  automobile. 
Progressive  farmers  are  lighting  their  homes  with  elec- 
tricity or  gasolene.  They  are  equipping  their  kitchens 
as  well  as  their  barns  and  fields  with  conveniences  to 
save  labor.  Into  every  community  there  has  come  the 
rural  free  mail  delivery  and  the  telephone,  and  we  can 
safely  prophesy  that  the  parcels  post,  the  postal  savings 
bank,  the  interurban  car  service,  good  public  roads,  con- 
solidated schools,  and  live  country  churches  are  soon 
to  enrich  and  enlarge  the  life  in  the  open  country. 

Great  forces  for  rural  progress. — Many  strong  in- 
stitutions, and  men  of  mind  and  money  are  devoting 
themselves  to  the  interests  of  country  life.  State  de- 
partments of  education  are  providing  supervisors  of 
rural  schools  and  encouraging  the  teaching  of  agricul- 
ture and  domestic  science  in  these  schools.  Agricultural 
colleges  are  sending  extension  schools,  farmers'  insti- 
tutes, and  instruction  trains  into  every  corner  of  their 


COUNTBY    LIFE    CONVENIENCES  133 

states.  The  national  grange  is  developing  leaders  among 
the  men  and  women  who  live  on  the  farms,  and  ex- 
tending its  work  of  education  and  organization  into 
every  state  in  the  union.  The  national  department  of 
agriculture  is  sending  expert  men  and  helpful  litera- 
ture to  every  farm  and  rural  institution,  organizing  and 
making  more  effective  all  the  forces  for  rural  progress. 

Practical  Exercises 

Pupils  may  make  special  reports  on  the  following 
topics  as  relating  to  the  community  in  which  they  live: 

1.  Modern  conveniences  on  the  farm. 

2.  Community  improvement  clubs. 

3.  Consolidation  of  rural  schools. 

4.  Rural  mail  delivery. 

5.  Postal  savings  banks. 

6.  Parcels  post. 

7.  Rural  telephones. 

8  Interurban  car  lines. 

9  Automobiles. 

LESSON  XLV 

THE    FARMERS'    READING 

The  fanners'  library. — The  progressive  farmer  of 
to-day  finds  time  to  read,  and  his  library  is  supplied 
not  only  with  good  books  and  periodicals  of  general 
literature,  but  with  the  latest  books,  bulletins,  and  farm 
papers  as  well.  Men  in  all  other  vocations  find  both 
profit  and  pleasure  in  keeping  up  with  the  times  by 
attending  meetings,  and  reading  the  literature  of  their 


134  LESSONS    IN    AGRICULTURE 

profession.  This  could  not  be  said  of  the  farmer  until 
very  recently. 

Who  are  writing  farm  books? — The  writers  of  the 
best  modern  books  and  periodicals  of  agriculture  are 
men  who  not  only  have  the  theoretical  knowledge  of 
their  subjects,  but  the  practical  experience;  and  they 
have  thus  gained  the  confidence  of  the  farmers,  because 
they  are  in  the  field,  wearing  overalls  with  them.  The 
progressive  farmer  no  longer  speaks  lightly  of  "book 
farming, ' '  for  he  knows  that  good  farmers  have  written, 
as  well  as  wrought,  successfully  in  agriculture. 

Farm  papers. — There  are  many  good  farm  papers, 
and  every  progressive  farmer  is  a  subscriber  to  one 
or  more  periodicals  relating  to  the  work  in  which  he  is 
interested.  He  reads  and  experiments  and  thus  finds 
greater  interest  and  profit  in  his  work. 

Farm  books. — The  following  vocational  books  should 
should  be  in  every  farmer's  library: 

Chapters  in  Rural  Progress,  Butterfield. 

The  State  and  the  Farmer,  Bailey. 

The  Education  of  the  Farmer,  Bailey. 

The  Country  Home,  Powell. 

Practical  Farming,  McClennan. 

Encyclopedia  of  Agriculture,  Bailey. 

Checking  the  Waste,  Gregory. 

The  Country  Life  Movement,  Bailey. 

The  Country  Church  and  the  Rural  Life  Problem, 
Bailey. 

The  Rural  Life  Problem  of  the  United  States,  Plun- 
kett. 


SOIL  135, 

Most  of  the  above  are  supplied  by  the  Orange  Judd 
and  Macmillan  companies,  New  York  City. 

Practical  Exercises 

1.  Pupils  should  bring  copies  of  farm  papers  from 
their  homes  and  start  a  reading  table  in  the  school. 

2.  Send  for  copies  of  farm  papers  for  the  reading 
table. 

3.  Each  pupil  should  report  some  interesting  article 
he  has  read  in  a  farm  paper. 

4.  Write  to  the  College  of  Agriculture  for  reading 
circle  books,  and  try  to  organize  a  reading  circle  among 
the  farmers  of  the  community. 


SOIL 

During  some  mild  day  this  month,  let  us  go  to  vari- 
ous places  on  our  farm,  gather  samples  of  soil,  and 
make  a  more  careful  study  of  them  in  our  farm  labora- 
tory. 

Since  the  soil  is  the  place  where  all  our  plants  must 
grow,  and  since  our  animals  must  be  fed  from  the 
plants  we  raise,  our  soil  is  the  real  foundation  of  our 
farm. 

How  soils  are  formed. — Geologists  tell  us  that  at 
one  time  a  great  rock  mass  formed  the  surface  of  the 
earth.  Earthquakes  probably  made  great  breaks  in 
this  rock  mass,  then  by  the  decay  of  the  rocks,  the 
grinding  of  the  water  and  ice,  and  the  depositing  of 
sediment,  soil  was  formed.  Water  has  been  continually 


136 


LESSONS    IN    AGRICULTURE 


dissolving  away  and  depositing  particles  of  the  rocks 
to  form  soil.  Frosts,  winds,  rains,  running  streams, 
plant  roots,  burrowing  animals,  and  other  forces  of 
nature  are  constantly  changing  the  rocks  to  soil. 

Kinds  of  soil. — Since  all  soils  come  from  rocks,  the 
kind  of  soil  must  therefore  depend  on  the  kind  of  rock 
from  which  it  was  made.  Sandy  soil  must  come  from 


Fig.  42 — Drawing,  showing  how  Fig.  42* — Drawing,  showing  gla- 
rock  gradually  breaks  up  and  de-  ciai  (Irlft  deposited  on  top  of  the 
cays  from  the  top  downward.  solid  rock. 

sandstone,  lime  soil  from  limestone,  clay  soil  from  clay 
stones,  etc. 

Humus. — Humus  is  the  decaying  and  partly  decayed 
plant  and  animal  life  in  the  soil.  It  is  usually  dark 
colored.  Humus  greatly  improves  the  soil  for  plants, 
because  in  its  decay  acids  are  set  free  which  help  dis- 
solve plant  food  in  the  soil,  and  because  it  improves 
the  quality  of  the  soil,  making  clay  less  and  sand  more 
compact,  thus  increasing  the  water-holding  capacity 
for  plants.  The  loss  of  humus  makes  hillside  land  wash 
badly,  and  unless  the  farmer  is  careful,  his  sloping  fields 
are  soon  "worn  out."  All  weeds,  stubble,  clovers,  etc., 


SOIL 


137 


should  be  plowed  under  to  form  humus,  and  thus  keep 
the  soil  in  good  condition. 

Clay  soil. — Most  soils  contain  both  sand  and  clay, 
and  the  class  to  which  a  soil  belongs  is  determined  by 
the  relative  amounts 
of  these  of  which  it 
is  composed.  A  clay 
soil  is  composed  of 
very  fine  particles, 
which,  when  dry, 
seem  to  contain  no 
grit  or  sand.  Clay 
soils  retain  water  a  **~"V*£^ 
long  time,  and  be- 
come very  hard  in 
drying. 

Sandy  soil. — Sand 
varies  greatly  in  fine- 
ness. Sand  particles 
are  very  hard,  and 
have  sharp  edges, 
giving  a  gritty  feel- 
ing in  handling.  Wa- 
ter passes  through 
sand  very  freely. 
Sandy  soils  are 
quickly  warmed  by  the  sun  in  the  spring.  They  wash 
badly  and  are  not  durable  under  tillage.  Both  sand 
and  clay  may  contain  organic  matter;  that  is,  decaying 
plant  or  animal  life. 


Courtesy  of  D.  W.  Working 
FIG.  43.     THE  WEATHERING  OF  ROCK 

Under  the  influence  of  the  weather 
— heating  and  cooling,  wetting  and  dry- 
ing— the  solid  rock  is  then  broken  into 
fragments. 


138  LESSONS   IN   AGRICULTURE 

Loam. — Loam  is  a  mixture  of  sand,  clay  and  humus 
in  such  proportions  as  to  be  easily  tilled,  and  suitable 
for  most  crops.  Good  soil  must  also  have  a  constant 
supply  of  moisture  and  air.  Loam  is  neither  too  coarse 
nor  too  fine  to  allow  the  best  supply  of  air  and  moisture 
in  the  soil. 

Practical  Exercises 

(Use  notebooks  and  record  results  and   observations) 
1.     Comparison  of  Soils 

With  samples  of  clay,  sand,  and  humus  loams,  spread 
on  sheets  of  paper  before  each  pupil,  let  the  student  fill 
out  the  following  table : 


Soils. 

Color. 

Size  of  particles. 

Weight. 

Feeling. 

Clay  Loam  

Sand  Loam  

Humus  Loam  

The  use  of  a  hand  lens  will  help  in  this  study. 

2.     Composition  of  Soil 

Carefully  weigh  a  small  handful  of  rich  black  soil. 
Then  dry  it  thoroughly,  being  careful  not  to  burn  it, 
and  weigh  again.  The  difference  is  the  weight  of  the 
water  content  of  the  soil.  What  per  cent  of  this  soil 
was  water?  Now  place  the  dry  soil  in  a  dish  or  iron 
pan  and  burn  it.  Cool,  weigh  again,  and  examine  care- 
fully. The  loss  is  the  weight  of  the  humus  or  organic 
matter.  What  per  cent  of  this  soil  is  organic  mat- 
ter? Do  you  believe  that  you  could  burn  all  of  the 
soil?  The  portion  remaining  is  the  mineral  matter. 
What  per  cent  is  mineral  matter?  We  shall  learn  what 


SOIL 


139 


this  mineral  matter  consists  of.     Record  the  result  of 
this  exercise  and  write  answers  to  all  the  questions. 

3.     Water-holding  Capacity  of  Soils 

Fill  three  small  earthen  flower  pots  with  finely  pul- 
verized soils,  one  with  clay,  one  with  sand,  and  one 
with  humus  loam.  Weigh  these,  and  if  possible  make 
them  weigh  the  same.  Then  slowly  pour  water  into 
each  pot  until  the  soils  are  saturated  and  the  water 


FIG.   44.     APPARATUS  TO  TEST  THE  CAPACITY  OF   SOILS  TO  TAKE  IN 

RAINFALL 

begins  to  run  out  from  the  hole  at  the  bottom  of  the 
pot.  Weigh  the  pots  of  wet  soil,  and  determine  which 
is  holding  the  most  water.  Which  soil  took  in  water 
most  rapidly?  Which  most  slowly?  Which  of  the 
soils  could  absorb  the  heaviest  shower?  Which  soil 
continues  to  drip  longest?  Which  drains  most  readily? 


140 


I.KSSONS    IN    AGRICULTURE 


Does    this    experiment    have    any    bearing    on    farm 
practice  ?    What  ? 

4.     Capillarity  of  Soils 

Fill  three  soil  tubes  respectively  with  fine  dry  sand, 
clay,  and  loam.  The  soil  is  held  in  the  tubes  by  a  cloth 
tied  over  one  end  of  each  of  the  tubes.  Set  the  tubes 
in  a  rack  as  shown  in  the  figure,  so  that  the  cloth  ends 
reach  down  into  the  tumblers,  filled  to  equal  heights 


FIG.  45.     DIAGRAM  SHOWING  ACTION  OF  WATKB  IN  SOIL 

with  water.  Observe  the  rise  of  water  in  the  different 
soils.  Note  how  high  it  rises  in  each  tube,  and  the 
time  it  takes.  In  which  soil  does  the  water  rise  most 
rapidly?  In  which  to  the  greatest  height?  Which 
soil  draws  up  the  greatest  amount  of  water?  This 
power  of  soils  to  draw  water  up  from  below  is  called 
capillarity,  and  the  water  is  called  capillary  water. 
Because  of  this  capillarity,  plants  are  able  to  get  mois- 
ture from  the  sub-soil  in  times  of  drought.  How  may 


SOIL  141 

the  farmer  increase  the  amount  of  humus  in  his  soil, 
and  thus  the  drawing  and  holding  capacity  for  water  be 
increased  ? 

5.     Soil  Mulch 

Fill  two  tin  pans  or  cans  with  the  same  kind  and 
amount  of  soil,  and  thoroughly  saturate  each  pan  of 
soil  with  water.  Then  cover  the  wet  soil  of  one  pan 
with  an  inch  or  more  of  dry  earth,  finely  pulverized, 
and  leave  the  other  pan  unmulched.  See  that  both 
pans  of  soil  now  weigh  the  same,  by  transferring  soil 
from  one  to  the  other  as  necessary.  Set  the  pans  aside 
for  twenty-four  hours,  then  weigh  again.  Weigh  the 
pans  every  twenty-four  hours  for  several  days,  and 
record  the  comparative  weights  of  the  two  pans  of  soils. 
The  dust  mulch  prevents  evaporation,  and  enables  the 
soil  to  retain  its  moisture.  What  bearing  does  this  ex- 
periment have  upon  any  farm  operations? 

6.    Field  Observations 

Take  a  walk  to  a  suitable  field  near  the  schoolhouse. 
Take  pencil  and  notebook  and  answer  the  following 
questions : 

1.  How  does  the  weathered  surface  of  rocks  compare 
with  the  freshly  broken  surface? 

2.  Are  the  boulders  and  pebbles  you  find  of  the 
same  material  as  the  rock  ledges  to  be  found  in  the 
neighborhood  ? 

3.  How  do  the  pebbles  in  the  bed  of  a  stream  com- 
pare with  those  back  from  the  stream,  in  size  and  shape  ? 
Explain  the  difference. 

4.  Find  some  rich  soil  and  dig  a  hole  about  18x12 


142 


LESSONS    IN    AGRICULTURE 


inches,  and  about  2  feet  deep.  Describe  the  difference 
between  the  soil  and  sub-soil.  Repeat  this  experiment 
by  digging  the  hole  on  a  steep  slope.  Account  for 
the  difference  between  the  soil  of  the  two  places.  Which 
do  you  think  will  grow  the  better  crop?  How  deep  is 
the  soil  in  both  places? 

5.  Name  the  places  at  which  you  see  soil  forming, 
and  explain  agency  in  each  case. 

7.     Soils  on  the  Home  Farms 

Each  student  in  the  class  should  bring  samples  of 
soil  from  the  home  farm.  Place  the  samples  in  sepa- 
rate vessels  on  a  table  where  all  can  observe  them,  and 
fill  out  the  following  outline: 


Owner  of  Soil. 

Kind  of  Soil. 

Condition  of  Soil. 

Color  of  Soil. 

Free  Bulletins,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture 
Bureau  of  Soils 

Circular  No.    4.— Soils  of  Salt  Lake  Valley,  Utah. 

Circular  No.    8. — Reclamation  of  Salt  Marsh  Lands. 

Circular  No.  13.— The  Work  of  the  Bureau  of  Soils. 

Table  showing  fertilizing  substances  in  average  soils: 

Pounds  per  Ton. 
Soil.  Nitrogen.         Phos.  Acid.  Potash 

Loam  7  Ibs.  3  Ibs.  8  Ibs. 

Clay 3  Ibs.  3  Ibs.  15  Ibs. 

Sand    1  Ib.  2  Ibs.  5  Ibs. 

(Adapted  from  Stockbridge.) 

Problems 

1.  Suppose  soil  is  cultivated  to  the  depth  of  4  inches. 
How  many  cubic  feet  of  cultivated  soil  per  square  foot 
of  area  ?  Per  square  yard  ?  Per  square  rod  ?  Per  acre  ? 


SOIL  143 

2.  If  a  cubic  foot  of  soil  weighs  75   pounds,   how 
many  pounds  of  cultivated  soil  per  square  yard?     Per 
square  rod  ?    Per  acre  ? 

3.  Find  the  number  of  pounds  of  nitrogen,  potash 
and  phosphoric  acid  in  the  cultivated  soil  per  acre  for 
each  of  the  four  kinds  of  soil. 

4.  If  the  soil  is  cultivated  to  the  depth   of  eight 
inches,   how  many   pounds  of  each  of  the  three   fer- 
tilizing substances  per  acre  in  each  of  the  soils  given  in 
the  table  ? 

5.  How  many  pounds  of  nitrogen,  potash  and  phos- 
phoric acid  are  used,  annually,  per  acre,  by  a  crop  of 
20  bu.  of  wheat?    In  how  many  years  will  one-half  of 
the  nitrogen  in  clay  be  used  up  by  this  crop  feeding  to 
the  depth  of  eight  inches? 

6.  How  will  this  affect  future  crops  ? 

7.  Work  the  same  problem  for  other  soils. 

8.  Use  a  50  bu.  corn  crop  per  acre  and  work  prob- 
lem 7.    Also  a  60  bu.  oat  crop.    A  120  bu.  potato  crop. 

LESSON  XLVII 
PLANT   FOODS 

While  we  are  waiting  for  spring  to  come,  when  we 
shall  be  almost  too  busy  on  our  farm  to  read,  we  shall 
continue  our  studies  of  soils  and  plant  foods. 

Elements  of  the  earth. — Chemists  have  found  that 
all  the  substances  of  the  world  can  be  separated  into 
about  eighty  different  things.  These  are  called  elements. 
Iron,  gold,  silver,  tin,  carbon,  sulphur,  etc.,  are  elements. 


144  LESSONS    IN 

No  one  has  been  able  to  separate  them  into  different 
things.  Gold  cannot  be  separated  into  anything  but 
gold.  For  centuries  men  tried  to  make  gold  out  of  other 
things,  but  they  failed.  Water  is  not  an  element;  it  is 
a  compound.  A  chemist  can  separate  it  into  two  gases, 
hydrogen  and  oxygen. 

Elements  and  compounds. — All  living  things  are 
made  up  of  different  compounds  of  elements.  The 
starch  of  corn  is  a  compound  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and 
oxygen.  Only  a  few  of  the  eighty  elements  are  neces- 
sary for  the  growth  of  plants  and  animals.  The  follow- 
ing elements  are  commonly  found  in  plants,  and  the  first 
ten  are  absolutely  necessary  for  good  plant  growth : 
oxygen,  hydrogen,  carbon,  nitrogen,  iron,  potassium, 
phosphorus,  calcium,  sulphur,  magnesium,  sodium,  chlo- 
rine, and  silicon.  Oxygen,  hydrogen,  and  nitrogen  are 
invisible  gases,  so  we  do  not  see  them.  Gold  and  sul- 
phur occur  as  free  elements.  Calcium  is  not  ordinarily 
seen,  but  ordinary  quicklime  is  either  calcium  or  mag- 
nesium combined  with  oxygen.  Silicon  and  oxygen 
combined  make  up  the  large  part  of  sand.  Salt  is  a 
compound  of  sodium  and  chlorine.  A  green  plant  is 
mostly  water.  Of  the  other  substances,  carbon  makes 
up  nearly  one-half;  nitrogen  comes  next;  and  there  are 
smaller  amounts  of  other  elements. 

Essential  elements  for  plants. — No  plant  can  grow 
unless  supplied  with  the  first  ten  elements  mentioned 
above.  The  soil  furnishes  iron,  sulphur,  magnesium, 
sodium,  chlorine,  and  silicon;  a  farmer  does  not  need 
to  give  special  attention  to  these.  The  carbon  dioxide 


PLANT    FOODS  145 

gas  of  the  air  furnishes  carbon ;  water  furnishes  hydro- 
gen and  oxygen;  and  the  remaining  elements,  nitrogen, 
potassium,  phosphorus,  and  calcium,  are  often  insuffi- 
cient in  the  soil,  and  must  be  supplied  if  a  good  crop  is 
to  grow.  So  these,  particularly  the  first  three,  are  the 
elements  that  the  farmers  buy  in  their  fertilizers. 

Soil  elements. — The  following  table  shows  the  com- 
position of  a  typical  soil,  containing  100  pounds  of  mat- 
ter. It  will  be  noted  that  all  these  elements  and  com- 
pounds enter  into  the  plant  as  food: 

Water 12.67  Ibs. 

Carbon  

Silica    71.55 

Aluminum 6.94 

Iron  5.17 

Magnesium    1.08 

Soda 43 

Sulphuric   acid 04 

85.21  Ibs. 

Nitrogen 12 

Phosphoric  acid 43 

Potash '. 35 

Lime    1.22 

2.12  Ibs. 

The  first  and  second  groups  given  above  are  more 
or  less  constant  in  the  soil  and  in  sufficient  quantities 
that  the  farmer  need  not  concern  himself  about  supply- 
ing them.  The  third  group,  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid, 
potash  and  lime,  although  constituting  so  small  a  por- 
tion of  the  soil,  must  be  held  up  to  a  good  standard 
amount  and  proportion  or  the  plant  cannot  grow.  These 
elements  are  often  used  up  in  the  soil  and  must  be  ar- 
tificially supplied  by  fertilizers  of  various  kinds. 

Elements  in  a  wheat  plant. — The  following  table 
shows  the  composition  of  100  pounds  of  wheat  plants : 


146  LESSONS    IN    AGRICULTURE 

Carbon    47.69 

Water    45.86 

93.55  Ibs. 

Sodium    09 

Magnesium 20 

Sulphuric   acid 31 

Iron 04 

Chlorine    06 

Silica    2.75 

3.45  Ibs. 

Nitrogen  1.60 

Phosphoric    acid 45 

Potash    66 

Lime    29 

3.00  Ibs. 

This  table  is  interesting  in  that  it  shows  that  so 
small  a  per  cent  of  the  composition  of  the  plant  is  made 
up  of  the  nitrogen,  phosphorus,  potash  and  lime — the 
elements  that  exist  in  so  small  a  proportion  in  the  soil ; 
yet  it  is  this  small  proportion  of  these  elements  with 
which  the  farmer  must  concern  himself  in  intelligent 
practice. 

Plant  starvation. — Now,  if  these  foods  are  not  found 
in  sufficient  quantity  in  the  soil,  the  plant  grows  slowly 
and  finally  dies.  Again,  the  soil  may  contain  plenty  of 
plant  food,  but  it  may  not  be  in  a  form  readily  soluble 
by  the  water,  and  the  plant  suffers  from  a  lack  of  food, 
just  as  one  may  starve  within  ten  feet  of  plenty  of  food 
that  is  securely  locked  up  so  that  he  can  not  get  at  it. 
One  problem  which  the  farmer  is  called  upon  to  solve 
is,  how  to  make  the  plant  food  in  the  soil  of  his  farm 
more  easily  soluble. 

Soil  exhaustion. — From  what  we  have  learned  it  is 
clear  that,  if  the  farmer  raises  grain  on  his  farm,  to  sell, 
and  never  returns  manure  to  the  soil,  he  will  rob  it  of 


PLANT    FOODS  147 

its  plant  food,  and  it  will  soon  begin  to  show  evidence 
of  being  ' '  worn  out. ' '  Plant  foods  are  being  continually 
used  up  by  the  growing  plants,  and  removed  with  them, 
and  none  are  returned  to  take  their  place.  The  heavier 
the  crop  the  greater  will  be  the  loss.  Tobacco  and  root 
crops,  being  so  much  heavier,  exhaust  the  soil  faster 
than  small  grains. 

But  worn-out  soil  does  not  mean  soil  in  which  all 
the  different  kinds  of  plant  foods  are  used  up.  In 
fact,  soil  usually  contains  all  plant  foods  in  inexhaust- 
ible quantities  with  but  three  exceptions,  namely:  pot- 
ash, phosphoric  acid  and  the  nitrogen  found  in  am- 
monia. To  restore  the  fertility  of  the  soil  means  only 
to  restore  these  three  substances. 

Practical  Exercises 
1,     Collection  of  Plant  Foods 

Place  specimens  of  the  following  plant  foods  in  small 
bottles  and  label  properly:  Lime,  muriate  or  sulphate 
of  potash,  phosphoric  acid,  nitrate  of  soda,  iron-rust, 
magnesia,  sulphur,  and  pure  sand. 

2.     Experiment  with  Plant  Food  Tablets 

A  plant  food  tablet  has  been  prepared  which  contains 
the  food  essential  to  plant  growth.  Each  tablet  is  com- 
posed of  the  following  ingredients : 

Common  salt  (sodium  chloride),  2y2  grains. 

Plaster  of  Paris  (calcium  sulphate),  2l/2  grains. 

Epsom  salts  (magnesium  sulphate),  2y2  grains. 

Phosphate  of  lime  (calcium  phosphate),  2y2  grains. 

Salt-petre  (postassium  nitrate),  5  grains. 

Compounds  of  iron  and  chlorine  (ferric  chloride), 
1-10  grain. 


148 


LESSONS    IN    AGRICULTURE 


To  demonstrate  the  effect  of  plant  foods  as  prepared 
in  these  tablets,  fill  two  cans  or  flower  pots  with  per-, 
fectly  clean  sand  which  has  been  heated  to  the  boiling 
point  of  water.  Plant  six  grains  of  wheat  and  three 
grains  of  corn  in  each  pot.  Keep  one  pot  of  sand  moist 
with  rain  water.  Keep  the  other  in  the  same  condition 
as  to  moisture,  to  which  has  been  added  plant  food  to 
the  proportion  of  two  tablets  to  each  pint  of  water. 

At  first  there  will  be  no  difference  perhaps  in  the 
growth  of  the  plants,  but  in  two  or  three  weeks,  when 
the  food  stored  up  in  the  grain  is  exhausted,  the  dif- 
ference in  vigor  and  growth  is  clearly  evident.  Such 
substances  as  those  contained  in  these  tablets,  when  ap- 
plied to  the  soil,  are  known  as  fertilizers. 

Table  showing  proportions  of  fertilizing  substances  in  farm 
crops: 

Ounces  per  Bushel. 


Crop. 
Wheat   

Nitre 
...20 

)gen. 
oz. 
oz. 
oz. 
oz. 
oz. 
oz. 
oz. 
oz. 

Phos.  Acid. 
8      oz. 
9      oz. 
5      oz. 
6      oz. 
4      oz. 
3      oz. 
1      oz. 
1      oz. 

Potash. 
5     oz. 
5      oz. 
3      oz. 
4     oz. 
2      oz. 
2      oz. 
4      oz. 
2      oz. 

Rye  . 

17 

Corn,  shelled  

...14 

Barley    

.  ..   12 

Buckwheat    

..  .   12 

Oats   

...10 

Potatoes  

3 

Root  crops,  average.  . 

3 

Cotton  seed 13.8  oz. 


5.8  oz. 


5.4  oz. 


Ounces  per  100  Ibs. 


Cotton   lint  

,  .     3.8  oz. 

1.6  oz. 

8     oz. 

Crop. 
Timothy  or  red  top  hay  . 
Clover  hay  

Nitrogen. 
.   20      Ibs. 
.   40      Ibs. 

Pounds  per  Ton. 
Phos.  Acid. 

9      Ibs. 
10      Ibs. 

Potash. 
30      Ibs. 
40      Ibs. 

Tobacco  (leaves)  

.   60      Ibs. 

13      Ibs. 

80      Ibs. 

Straw    (average)  , 

,   10      Ibs. 

4      Ibs. 

20      Ibs. 

Sugar    beets     

3      Ibs. 

1-5    Ib. 

4      Ibs 

Cow-pea  hay  

.   47.2  Ibs. 

10.4  Ibs. 

29.4  Ibs. 

Sov  Bean  hav.  . 

.   46.4  Ibs. 

13.4  Ibs. 

21.6  Ibs. 

PLANT    FOODS  149 

Problems 

1.  How  many  pounds  of  each  of  the  three  impor- 
tant fertilizers  in  a  crop  of  wheat  that  yields  20  bu. 
per  acre?    25  bu.  per  acre? 

2.  A  corn  crop  of  50  bu.  per  acre  ?    60  bu.  ?    75  bu.  ? 

3.  An  oat  crop  of  40  bu.  per  acre  ?   50  bu.  ?   60  bu.  ? 

4.  A  barley  crop  of  40  bu.  ?    45  bu.  ?    50  bu.  ? 

5.  A  potato  crop  of  110  bu.  per  acre?     120  bu. ? 
150  bu.  ? 

6.  A  clover  hay  crop  of  3y2  tons  per  acre?    4  tons? 
5  tons? 

7.  A  meadow  hay  crop   of  2  tons  per  acre?     2l/2 
tons  ?    3  tons  ? 

8.  A  tobacco   crop   of  1,500   Ibs.   per  acre?     1,800 
Ibs.? 

9.  Compare  the   results  and  notice   which   crop   is 
hardest  on  the  soil. 

10.  Pupils   should   furnish   data   for   similar   prob- 
lems.    Tell  how  many  acres  of  corn,  wheat,  hay,  etc., 
were  raised  on  the  farm  at  home,  the  number  of  bush- 
els or  tons  per  acre,  and  find  the  amount  of  the  three 
essential  fertilizers  taken  off  with  the  crop. 

LESSON  XLVIII 

FERTILIZERS 

During  this  month  we  shall  begin  the  work  of  fertiliz- 
ing on  our  farm.  We  shall  mix  the  commercial  fer- 
tilizers in  our  farm  laboratory.  Barnyard  manures  and 
other  fertilizers  must  be  spread  upon  the  orchards, 


150 


LESSONS    IN    AGRICULTURE 


pastures,  fields  and  gardens,  as  we  shall  learn  in  this 
lesson. 

Important  elements  of  the  soil. — As  was  suggested 
in  the  last  lesson,  the  three  elements  likely  to  be  lack- 
ing in  our  soils  are  nitrogen,  phosphorus,  and  potash. 
The  fertilizers  we  use  must,  therefore,  contain  these 
essential  elements.  The  crop  will  usually  tell  the  farmer 
by  its  appearance  the  kind  of  food  it  most  needs.  Good, 


FIG.  46.     WASTE  OF  MANURE 


fertile,  well-drained  soil,  properly  cultivated,  usually 
produces  healthy,  dark  green  plants  with  strong,  good- 
sized  stalks,  and  numerous,  well-filled  seeds. 

Nitrogen. — The  growth  of  the  stalks  and  foliage  of 
the  plant  is  largely  due  to  the  nitrogen,  providing  the 
heat,  light,  air,  and  moisture  conditions  are  favorable. 
If  the  plant  has  a  yellow,  sickly  appearance,  and  under 
cultivation  refuses  to  grow,  it  is  likely  starving  for 
want  of  nitrogen.  The  best  fertilizer,  and  the  one  nearly 
always  giving  best  results,  is  barnyard  manure.  It  has 
right  amounts  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  and  potash, 
in  forms  readily  available  to  the  plant.  Especially 


FEETIL1ZEKS  151 

will  barnyard  manure  improve  yellow  and  sickly  plants. 
Besides  acting  as  a  fertilizer,  barnyard  manure  improves 
the  texture  of  the  soil,  increases  its  water-holding  ca- 
pacity, and  its  decay  sets  free  humic  acids  which  ren- 
der mineral  foods  of  the  soil  more  available. 

Clovers,  cow-peas,  and  other  like  legumes,  also  serve 
as  fertilizers,  because  they  have  the  power  of  using  the 
nitrogen  of  the  air  in  a  way  that  will  be  explained  in  a 
later  lesson.  These  plants  store  up  the  nitrogen  that 
they  take  from  the  air,  and  if  they  are  plowed  under 
when  mature,  they  add  this  nitrogen  to  the  soil,  as  well 
as  large  quantities  of  humus,  which  in  decaying  lib- 
erates other  mineral  foods  already  in  the  soil. 

The  principal  commercial  nitrogen  fertilizers  are  cot- 
tonseed meal,  nitrate  of  soda,  dried  blood  and  tankage, 
and  refuse  from  slaughterhouses.  Nitrate  of  soda  is 
the  best  and  quickest  acting  of  all  these  fertilizers.  It 
dissolves  quickly  when  applied  to  the  soil,  and  is  at 
once  available  as  food  for  the  plants.  High  grade 
nitrate  of  soda  contains  15%  nitrogen.  Two  hundred 
pounds  per  acre  is  a  heavy  application. 

Phosphoric  acid. — Phosphoric  acid  is  the  one  com- 
pound in  our  soils  soonest  likely  to  be  wanting,  and  the 
one  which  in  the  future  it  will  be  most  difficult  to  pro- 
vide. Undeveloped  and  shrunken  seeds  usually  indicate 
shortage  of  phosphoric  acid  in  the  soil.  Barnyard  ma- 
nure contains  a  good  percentage  of  phosphoric  acid. 
Ground  bones  and  phosphate  rocks  are  the  commercial 
sources  of  this  fertilizer.  There  are  great  deposits  of 
phosphate  rock  in  Tennessee  and  the  Carolinas,  and  it 


152  LESSONS    IX    AGRICULTURE 

is  being  rapidly  mined  away,  large  quantities  being 
taken  to  European  countries.  In  the  manufacture  of 
high  grade  phosphates,  the  rock  is  ground  fine  and  is 
then  treated  with  sulphuric  acid,  which  makes  it  soluble, 
and  thus  available  as  a  plant  food.  High  grade  phos- 
phates contain  15%  acid  phosphate.  Two  hundred 
pounds  per  acre  is  an  average  application. 

Potash. — Potash  is  especially  essential  in  the  pro- 
duction of  fruits,  potatoes,  and  root  crops.  Other  con- 
ditions being  favorable,  undersized,  shriveled,  and  im- 
perfect fruits  are  due  to  a  lack  of  potash.  Here  again 
barnyard  manure  will  supply  a  good  percentage  of  the 
element  needed.  Wood  ashes  are  also  valuable  as  a 
source  of  potash.  The  principal  commercial  potash  fer- 
tilizers are  muriate  of  potash  and  sulphate  of  potash. 
They  contain  about  50%  of  available  potash,  and  are 
seldom  applied  in  excess  of  one  hundred  pounds  per 
acre. 

Lime. — Lime  is  not  a  fertilizer  in  the  same  sense  as 
those  discussed  above,  but  it  is  used  in  connection  with 
fertilizers  because  of  its  chemical  effect  upon  the  soil. 
Lime  sweetens  the  soil,  breaks  up  combinations  so  that 
plant  food  is  set  free  for  the  use  of  the  plants,  and  im- 
proves the  physical  condition  of  both  clay  and  sand 
soils. 

The  subject  of  fertilizers  is  a  large  and  important  one 
to  the  farmer.  It  requires  much  thought  and  careful 
study,  and  each  farmer  must  work  out  his  own  farm 
needs. 


FERTILIZERS 


153 


Practical  Exercises 
1.    Experimental  Tests  with  Fertilisers 
Fill  ten  five-inch  earthen  flower  pots  with  clean  sand, 
and  add  fertilizers  to  the  different  pots  as  follows : 

1.  Nothing. 

2.  Nitrate  of  soda  (one-half  teaspoonful). 

3.  Acid  phosphate  (one  teaspoonful). 


FIG.  47.     LIMING  THE  SOIL 

4.  Muriate  of  potash  (one-fourth  teaspoonful). 

5.  Nitrate  of  soda  and  acid  phosphate. 

6.  Nitrate  of  soda  and  muriate  of  potash. 

7.  Acid  phosphate  and  muriate  of  potash. 

8.  Nitrate  of  soda,  acid  phosphate,  and  muriate  of 
potash. 

9.  Same  as  No.  8,  but  double  the  amount  of  each. 

10.  Stable  manure. 


154  LESSONS    IN    AGRICULTURE 

Mix  the  'fertilizers  into  the  soil;  then  plant  about 
a  dozen  grains  of  wheat  in  each  pot.  Label  each  pot 
with  the  names  of  the  fertilizers  used.  Place  the  pots 
in  a  window  or  light  place,  and  keep  the  soil  moist 
ened.  When  the  wheat  seedlings  come  up,  thin  out 
to  the  same  number  in  each  pot.  Note  the  difference 
in  the  color  of  the  leaves  in  each  pot.  Which  fertil- 
izers give  the  greatest  increase  in  growth? 

Make  a  complete  record  of  this  experiment  in  the 
note-book. 

2.    Effects  of  Lime  on  Soils 

To  see  the  effect  of  lime  on  clay  soil,  make  two  clay 
balls,  one  with  water,  and  the  other  with  lime  water,  and 
set  aside  to  dry.  In  a  few  days  examine  and  see  which 
is  more  mellow. 

Repeat  the  experiment  with  water  and  humus-water 
and  note  the  result. 

Is  lime  used  on  soils  in  your  neighborhood  ? 

Fertilizers 

Showing  average  amount  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and 
potash  in  fertilizers: 

Pounds  per  Ton. 

Substance.  Nitrogen.  Phos.  Acid.  Potash. 

Clover  hay 40  Ibs.  10  Ibs.  40  Ibs. 

Straw   10  Ibs.  4  Ibs.  20  Ibs. 

Barnyard  manure 10  Ibs.  6  Ibs.  9  Ibs. 

Wood  ashes 60  Ibs.  160  Ibs. 

Burned  bones 500  Ibs. 

Ground  bones 400  Ibs. 

Problems 

1.  Suppose  a  load  of  barnyard  manure  weighs  a 
ton.  How  many  pornds  of  nitrogen  in  it?  Of  phos- 
phoric acid  ?  Of  potash  ? 


FERTILIZERS  155 

2.  How  much  of  each  of  the  above  in  15  loads?    20 
loads?    50  loads? 

3.  How  many  loads  of  manure  were  hauled  onto 
your  land  last  year?     How  much  of  each  fertilizing 
substance  was  supplied  ? 

4.  If  you  put  15  loads  on  an  acre,  how  much  of 
each  fertilizing  substance  per  acre  ? 

5.  Suppose  you  harvested  50  bu.  of  corn  per  acre. 
How  much  of  each  fertilizing  substance  did  you  take 
off  with  the  crop  ? 

6.  Was  your  soil  richer  or  poorer  after  the  corn 
was  harvested?     Did  you  take  off  more  than  you  put 
on  ?    How  much  of  each  kind  ? 

7.  How  much  of  each  of  these  fertilizing  substances 
is  taken  off  with  a  25  bu.  crop  per  acre  of  wheat  ?    A  40 
bu.  crop  of  barley  ? 

8.  How  many  loads  of  manure  per  acre  are  necessary 
to  restore  the  fertility  lost  when  a  25  bu.  per  acre  wheat 
crop  is  harvested? 

9.  If  $5  per  acre  spent  in  fertilizer  increases  the 
yield  of  potatoes  50  bu.  net.    Find  the  gain  per  acre  by 
fertilizing. 

10.  A  farmer  who  uses  fertilizer  costing  $6  an  acre 
grows  560  Ibs.   of  cotton  per  acre;   one  who  uses  no 
fertilizer  grows  350  Ibs.  per  acre.    At  the  present  mar- 
ket price  of  cotton  which  plan  is  the  more  profitable? 
How  much  is  gained  on  80  acres? 

11.  The  usual  prices  of  the  common  fertilizers  is  as 
follows : 

Nitrate  of  soda,  $57.00  per  ton. 


156  LESSONS    IN    AGRICULTURE 

Acid  phosphate,  $12.50  per  ton. 

Muriate  of  potash,  $42.00  per  ton. 

How  much  would  a  pound  of  each  cost? 

When  a  farmer  speaks  of  a  fertilizer  as  being  2 :8 :10, 
he  means  that  it  contains  2%  nitrogen,  8%  phosphoric 
acid,  and  10%  potash. 

How  would  2000  pounds  of  fertilizer  of  this  type  be 
made  up? 

NOTE.  Assume  in  the  above  problem  that  nitrate  of 
soda  contains  15%  nitrogen,  the  acid  phosphate  14% 
phosphorus,  and  the  muriate  of  potash  50%  potash,  de- 
termine how  much  of  these  commercial  fertilizers  would 
be  required  to  furnish  the  essential  amount  of  pure 
elements. 

12.  At  the  College  of  Agriculture,  Cornell  Univer- 
sity, two  tons  of  manure  that  had  been  weighed  and 
analyzed  were  left  exposed  from  April  25  to  September 
22,  with  the  following  results: 

April  25.  Sept.  22. 

Total  weight 4,000  Ibs.  1,730  Ibs. 

Nitrogen  19.6  Ibs.  7.72  Ibs. 

Phosphoric    acid 14.8  Ibs.  7.79  Ibs. 

Potash 36.     Ibs.  8.65  Ibs. 

What  was  the  value  of  the  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid, 
and  potash  in  this  manure  on  April  25,  and  on  Sep- 
tember 22?  (Use  the  values  given  above).  How  much 
was  lost? 

There  are  two  ways  to  prevent  such  losses — the  ma- 
nure may  be  hauled  and  spread  on  the  land  every 
few  days,  or  it  may  be  kept  in  covered  sheds. 

13.  A  good  fertilizer  for  timothy  hay  has  been  found 
to  be  one  containing  200  pounds  of  nitrate  of  soda,  100 


FERTILIZERS  157 

pounds  of  acid  phosphate,  and  50  pounds  of  muriate  of 
potash,  per  acre. 

How  much  would  this  cost  per  acre? 

What  percentage  of  each  would  this  fertilizer  con- 
tain? 

About  how  much  hay  at  the  price  in  your  neighbor- 
hood would  be  worth  this  much  ? 


FEBRUARY 

On  the  farm. — During  this  month  we  shall  have  a 
variety  of  interests  and  plenty  of  work  to  engage  our 
attention  on  the  farm.  There  are  fences  to  repair  and 
build,  hotbeds  to  prepare,  tile  ditches  to  dig,  spring 
orders  to  make,  and  live  stock  to  feed  and  care  for.  No 
one  great  work  is  to  claim  our  time,  but  many  different 
plans  and  preparations  are  to  be  made. 

LESSON  XLIX 

DRAINAGE 

Plan  for  draining  our  forty  acres. — A  period  of  open 
weather  has  come,  the  ground  has  thawed  out,  and  we 
have  seen  that  fields  numbers  1  and  2  of  our  farm  need 
drainage.  If  the  ground  is  dry  enough  to  work  in,  we 
shall  run  two  ditches,  each  forty  rods  long,  across  the 
centers  of  fields  numbers  1  and  2,  and  connect  each  with 
Spring  Hollow.  We  shall  use  five-inch  tiles,  twelve 
inches  long,  and  they  will  cost  us  5c  each.  We  should 
have  a  bookkeeping  account  of  our  year  on  the  farm, 
and  record  the  expense  of  our  tile  drainage. 

Values  of  drainage. — Removes  the  excess  of  surface 
water.  Plants  cannot  grow  without  air,  and  much  water 
in  the  soil  keeps  out  the  air.  The  level  of  the  under- 
ground water  must  be  below  the  depth  to  which  the  roots 

158 


DRAINAGE  159 

of  the  crops  ordinarily  penetrate  the  soil.  Good  tile 
drainage  lowers  this  water  level.  Stiff  clay  soils  both 
on  low,  flat  land  and  upon  hillsides  often  hold  an  ex- 
cess of  surface  water,  and  need  drainage. 

Aerates  the  soil.  As  was  stated  above,  plants  require 
air  at  the  roots  as  well  as  about  their  foliage.  The 
presence  of  air  in  the  soil  promotes  the  action  of  bac- 
teria, the  germs  that  aid  in  breaking  up  the  humus,  as 
was  shown  in  a  previous  lesson,  and  in  the  fixation  of 
nitrogen  in  legumes.  Air  circulating  through  the  tiles 
tends  to  draw  the  air  through  the  soil  from  the  surface 
above  and  thus  to  aerate  the  whole  root-feeding  area 
of  the  plants. 

Warms  and  sweetens  the  soil.  In  wet  soils  so  much 
heat  is  used  in  evaporating  the  water  that  these  soils 
never  become  warm.  Often  such  soils  are  sour,  and 
cannot  become  sweet  until  the  water  is  drained  off  and 
the  heat  and  air  let  in.  Well  drained  land  warms  up 
earlier  in  the  spring,  facilitating  earlier  planting,  thus 
extending  the  growing  season  of  the  crop. 

Conserves  moisture.  We  were  told  a  moment  ago 
that  drainage  removes  the  excess  of  moisture,  and  it 
may  seem  a  contradiction  to  state  that  drainage  con- 
serves the  moisture,  but  this  fact  can  be  shown.  Soils 
that  are  aerated  and  tilled,  as  good  drainage  permits, 
are  more  porous  and  are  in  better  condition  physically 
both  to  receive  and  hold  the  rainfall  and  to  promote 
capillarity  from  the  table  water  below. 

Methods  of  drainage. — The  tile  system  of  drainage  is 
better  than  the  open  ditch,  though  more  expensive.  The 


1GO 


U-JSSONS    IN    AGRICULTURE 


tiles  should  be  placed  about  three  feet  below  the  sur- 
face, so  that  the  water  level  in  the  ground  will  be  low- 
ered to  this  point,  and  that  the  ground  may  be  cultivated 
without  interfering  with  the  tiles.  The  size  of  the  tile 
and  the  distance  apart  of  the  mains  and  branches  will 


FIG.  48.     LAYING  TILE 

depend  upon  the  slope  of  the  land  and  the  nature  of 
the  soil. 

Farmers'  Bulletins 

No.    40. — Farm  Drainage. 

\o.  187. — Drainage  of  Farm  Lands. 

Table  showing  average  cost  of  drainage  tile  in  large  quan- 
tities: 

3  in.  tile  cost  about  3c  each. 

4  in.  tile  cost  about  4c  each. 

5  in.  tile  cost  about  5c  each. 

6  in.  tile  cost  about  6c  each. 
All  sizes  are  12  inches  in  length. 


DRAINAGE  161 

Problems 

1.  A  farmer  owns  a  plat  of  low  ground  80  rods 
long  and  50  rods  wide ;  how  many  acres  in  this  plat  ? 

2.  A  creek  runs  lengthwise  through  this  land.     The 
level  of  the  water  in  the  creek  is  4  feet  below  the  level 
of  the  land.    Can  it  be  drained? 

3.  Will  the  creek  answer  as  a  channel  to  carry  off 
the  water  from  the  tiles? 

4.  Suppose  he  puts  the  tiles  crosswise  of  the  field, 
4  rods  apart,  so  that  they  open  into  the  creek.     How 
many   rods  of  tiling  will  it  take?     How  many   feet? 
How  many  4  in.  tiles? 

5.  What  will  be  the  cost  of  these  tiles  according  to 
the  above  table? 

6.  What  will  it  cost  to  dig  the  ditches  and  lay  the 
tiles  at  20  cents  per  rod  ? 

7.  What  will  be  the  entire  cost  if  4  in.  tiles  are 
used  ?    3  in.  ?     6  in.  ? 

8.  What  will  be  the  cost  per  acre  for  each  kind  of 
tile? 

9.  Suppose  open  ditches  costing  twenty  cents  per 
rod  will  answer.     How  much  more  will  the  tile  system 
cost  than  the  open  ditches  ? 

10.  If  the  farmer  is  able  to  grow  only  iy2  tons  of 
marsh  hay  worth  $4  per  ton  on  this  land  before  drain- 
ing and  can  grow  60  bu.  of  corn  worth  $0.35  per  bu. 
after  draining,  what  is  the  increase  in  the  value  of  the 
crop  due  to  drainage  ? 

11.  In  how  many  years  will  this  increase  alone  pay 


162  LESSONS    IN   AGRICULTURE 

for  the  open  ditch?     For  the  4  in.  tile  system?     For 
the  6  in.  tile  system? 

12.  Suppose  the  open  ditch  costs  5  cents  per  rod 
annually  for  repairs.    In  how  many  years  will  the  open 
ditch  cost  as  much  as  the  tile  drain  ? 

13.  If  the  above  is  a  true  example  of  the  cost  and 
value  of  drainage,  does  it  pay  ? 

14.  What  would  it  cost  to  dig  an  open  ditch  on 
each  side  of  a  slough  10  rods  wide  and  100  rods  long 
at  $0.25  per  rod  ? 

15.  Is  there  a  place  on  your  farm  that  needs  drain- 
ing?    Measure  it.     Draw  a  plan  for  ditches  and  esti- 
mate the  cost  of  both  systems. 

16.  Estimate  the  cost  of  the  drainage  suggested  at 
the  beginning  of  this  lesson. 

LESSON  L 

FENCES 

Good  fences  and  thrift. — We  shall  have  a  few  spare 
days  this  month,  and  it  would  be  well  to  look  to  our 
fences.  The  construction  and  care  of  the  farm  fences 
are  indications  of  thrift  or  shiftlessness  of  the  farmer. 
If  the  fences  about  the  yard,  gardens,  and  fields  are 
neatly  kept,  and  the  weeds  and  bushes  are  cut  from 
the  rows  and  corners,  it  is  a  sign  that  the  farmer  takes 
pride  in  his  home  and  farm,  and  that  he  is  successful 
in  the  details  of  his  business.  The  scarcity  of  timber 
is  necessitating  the  use  of  wire,  hedges,  and  cement  for 


FENCES  163 

fencing  purposes.  Wire  fences,  supported  by  the  locust 
or  catalpa  posts,  are  perhaps  the  best  fences  to  construct 
at  the  present  time. 

The  Ferguson  fence. — When  the  fence  rails  get  old 
and  broken,  farmers  sometimes  utilize  them  in  building 
what  is  known  as  the  Ferguson  fence.  In  this  arrange- 
ment posts  are  set  in  the  ground  and  the  fence  rails  are 
attached  to  the  posts  by  means  of  fencing  wire  and 
staples.  This  is  a  very  economical  fence,  not  only  from 
the  standpoint  of  materials,  but  also  on  account  of  the 
saving  of  space  in  the  fence  row. 

Osage  hedge  fence. — Some  years  ago  there  was  a 
great  deal  of  enthusiasm  over  the  Osage  hedge  fence,  but 
the  interest  in  these  fences  is  waning  now,  in  fact,  many 
of  the  hedges  are  being  pulled  up  and  burned.  The 
chief  objection  to  the  hedge  is  that  the  extensive  network 
of  roots  saps  the  life  and  nourishment  of  the  soil  to  such 
an  extent  that  farm  crops  can  not  be  grown  within 
twenty  or  thirty  feet  of  the  fence. 

Since  1870  many  states  have  passed  stock  laws  re- 
quiring every  man  to  fence  in  his  own  stock,  instead  of 
fencing  out  those  of  his  neighbors.  The  result  has  been 
a  great  saving  to  farmers  in  every  case. 

Practical  Exercises 
1.    Fences  on  Home  Farms 

Make  a  list  of  all  the  different  kinds  of  fences  that 
you  have  on  the  home  farm.  Explain  how  they  are 
made,  tell  how  long  they  have  been  constructed,  and  in 
what  condition  they  are  at  present. 


164  LESSONS    |\    AGRICULTURE 

g.    Excursion  to  Observe  and  Repair  F> 

At  the  conclusion  of  this  lesson,  go  to  observe  some 
fence  near  the  school.  Make  note  of  the  fence,  filling 
out  the  following  table: 


Kind   of  Fence.]  Materials  Used.|State  of  Repair.]  Attention  Needed. 

If  there  are  any  fences  needing  repair  about  the  school 
yard  or  in  the  neighborhood,  it  would  be  an  excellent 
thing,  as  an  application  of  this  lesson,  to  repair  them 
and  to  put  them  in  as  good  condition  as  possible. 

3.    Cement  Fence-posts 

Since  recent  fence-post  and  walk  construction  have 
made  use  of  the  Portland  cement  about  the  farm,  it 
would  be  valuable  exercise  to  make  a  few  cement  posts 
or  blocks  at  the  school.  The  following  formula  is  used : 

Cement    1  part. 

Sand   2  or  3  parts. 

Stone  (from  one  to  two  inches  diameter)  5  parts. 
Moisten  and  mix  until  the  mortar  slides  easily  and 
smoothly  from  the  shovel. 


FENCES  105 

Problems 

1.  How  many  rods  of  fence  will  it  take  to  fence  in 
a    160-acre    farm?      Estimate    for    differently    shaped 
farms. 

2.  How    many   locust   posts   would   be    required   to 
fence  the  160-acre  farm  with  wire? 

3.  What  would  be  the  cost  of  woven  wire  fence  for 
this  farm? 

4.  How  long  should  such  a  fence  last  ? 

LESSON  LI 

KNOT  TYING  IN  ROPES 

A  rainy  day  has  come.  Having  read  our  farm  papers 
until  we  are  tired,  let  us  go  to  the  farm  laboratory  and 
practice  tying^  knots  in  ropes. 

1.  The  tying  of  useful  knots,  rope  splicing,  making 
of  hitching  ropes,  halters  and  other  useful  things  of 
this  kind,  are  industries  that  belong  to  the  farm,  and 
should  be  included  in  a  course  of  agriculture  for  the 
schools.    The  teacher  should  provide  a  rope  and  make 
models  of  each  of  the  eight  knots  shown  in  the  figure, 
and  hang  them  up  before  the  class. 

2.  Each  pupil  should  have  a  piece  of  rope  about 
one  yard  in  length,  and  practice  making  these  knots 
until  he  can  do  it  with  ease. 


166 


LESSONS    IN    AGRICULTURE 


3.     Names  of  the  useful  knots: 

a.  The  single  loop. 

b.  The  overhand  knot. 

c.  The  overhand  knot  repeated.    Used  to  keep  the 


FIG.  49.     USEFUL  KNOTS 

rope  from  slipping  before  making  the  square  knot  in 
tying  bundles. 

d.  The  square  or  reef  knot.     A  strong  knot  which 
will  not  untie  by  pulling,  but  which  can  be  easily  broken 
and  untied. 

e.  The  loop  knot.     Used  in  making  a  halter  that 
will  not  slip. 

f.  The  figure  of  8  knot. 


A  HOTBET  GABDEN  167 

g.     The   slip   knot.      Commonly   used   in   hitching 
horses  to  racks. 

h.     The  bowline  knot.     Used  in  tying  the  anchor 
of  ships. 

NOTE.  Practical  exercises  in  splicing  ropes,  riveting 
harness,  and  sewing  halters,  etc.,  may  be  given. 

LESSON  LII 

A  HOTBED  GARDEN 

During  the  latter  part  of  this  month  we  must  begin 
to  plan  for  our  hotbeds  and  cold  frames  for  our  early 
vegetables  and  flowers. 

Even  in  school  the  teacher  and  pupils  may  well  un- 
dertake to  work  out  this  lesson  together.  Proceed  as 
follows : 

Making  the  hotbed. — Select  a  place  at  the  south  side 
of  some  building  for  the  hotbed.  Dig  an  oblong  space 
three  feet  wide,  six  feet  long,  and  eighteen  inches  deep. 
Make  a  wall  of  posts  and  boards,  fitting  close  to  the 
sides  of  the  bed.  Make  the  back  wall  three  feet  high  and 
eighteen  inches  above  the  surface  of  the  ground.  A 
piece  of  two-by-four  joist  set  in  from  back  to  front 
across  the  middle,  will  make  a  support  for  the  window 
sashes  which  are  to  cover  the  bed.  When  the  bed  is 
ready,  put  in  a  layer  of  strawed  manure  that  has  been 
piled  for  some  time,  fill  in  about  nine  inches  of  the  ma- 
nure and  tramp  it  down  firmly.  Then  add  a  second 
layer  of  nine  inches,  and  tramp  firmly  as  before. 

Then  spread  four  inches  of  rich  garden  loam  over 


108 


LKSSONS     IN     ACKHTI.TCKK 


the  manure,  and  the  bed  is  ready.  Perhaps  some  of 
the  pupils  can  bring  whole  window  sashes  from  home 
to  cover  the  beds.  Two  sashes  three  feet  square  would 
make  the  necessary  cover. 

Plants  for  the  hotbed. — Early  lettuce,  radishes,  early 
Jersey  Wakefield  cabbages,  the  Earliana  tomato,  onions, 
and  other  vegetables  may  be  sown  thickly  in  rows  about 


FIG.  50.     A  HOTBED  IN  WINTER 

four  inches  apart,  and  by  the  time  warm  weather 
comes,  the  school  will  have  plants  to  supply  the  neigh- 
borhood, the  children  will  have  seen  many  interesting 
things,  and  the  school  will  have  found  a  new  source  of 
co-operation  with  the  home. 

Ventilating  the  hotbed. — In  the  hotbed  the  manure 
warmed  the  soil,  and  the  glass  kept  the  heat  in  the 
frame.  The  soil  should  be  watered  every  few  days,  and 
on  the  bright  days  the  sash  should  be  raised  to  admit 
fresh  air  to  the  little  seedlings. 

Draw  the  plan  of  the  hotbed,  and  describe  tli«- 
preparation  and  planting. 


RURAL    FREE    MAIL    DELIVERY  169 

LESSON  LIII 

EURAL    FREE    MAIL   DELIVERY 

Using  the  free  delivery. — As  the  spring  approaches 
we  begin  to  think  of  catalogs  of  seeds  and  plants,  and 
of  the  agricultural  bulletins,  which  will  give  us  the 
latest  information  to  help  us  in  our  work.  We  are  for- 
tunate in  having  a  rural  free  delivery  at  our  door,  and 
we  shall  make  use  of  this  service. 

Rural  free  delivery  and  good  roads. — There  is  no 
modern  convenience  of  greater  importance  to  the  coun- 
try people  than  the  rural  free  mail  delivery.  Although 
it  is  not  self-sustaining,  and  costs  the  people  large  sums 
of  money,  it  has  come  to  stay,  for  the  farmer  sees  that  its 
service  is  a  great  necessity  in  the  promotion  of  his  wel- 
fare. In  order  to  promote  the  greater  efficiency  of  the 
rural  delivery  service,  and  at  the  same  time  render  ef- 
fective aid  in  the  improvement  of  roads  throughout  the 
United  States,  the  Post  Office  Department,  and  the  Of- 
fice of  Public  Roads  have  entered  into  a  plan  of  co-op- 
eration looking  to  the  betterment  of  all  roads  where  the 
rural  service  is  extended.  Through  this  co-operation,  re- 
cently a  county  in  Indiana  spent  $85,000  for  the  im- 
provement of  the  rural  mail  routes.  Upon  the  advice  of 
the  Post  Office  Department,  the  Office  of  Public  Roads 
sends  its  engineers  to  inspect  and  advise  as  to  the  con- 
struction of  local  roads. 


170  LESSONS    IN    AGRICULTURE 

Practical  Exercises 

1.  Information  About   the  Local  Carrier 

Find  out  from  your  local  carrier  the  following  points 
of  information  and  write  them  up  in  the  record  of  this 
lesson : 

1.  How  many  miles  does  the  carrier  travel  in  a  day? 

2.  What  is  the  carrier's  salary? 

3.  What  is  the  condition  of  the  roads? 

4.  How  many  daily  and  how  many  weekly  papers 
are  delivered  on  the  route  T 

5.  What  is  the  average  daily  stamp  cancel  on  this 
route  ? 

6.  Does  the  postage  of  the  route  pay  expenses? 

2,  How  to  Use  the  Rural  Free  Delivery 

Each  pupil  in  the  class  should  write  a  letter  to  the 
Department  of  Agriculture,  addressed  to  the  Secretary 
of  Agriculture,  Washmgton,  D.  C.,  or  better  still,  to 
your  Congressman  or  Senator  at  Washington,  and  ask 
for  at  least  ten  of  the  following  Farmers'  Bulletins: 
(Copy  this  letter  neatly  in  the  note-book  record  of  this 
lesson.) 

Farmers'  Bulletins 

No.    22.     The  Feeding  of  Farm  Animals. 

No.     28.     Weeds,  and  How  to  Kill  Them. 

No.    35.     Potato  Culture. 

No.    41.     Fowls:    Care  and  Feeding. 

No.    42.     Facts  About  Milk. 

No.    43.     Sewage  Disposal  on  the  Farm. 

No.    44.     Commercial  Fertilizers. 

No.    49.     Sheep  Feeding. 

No.    51.     Standard  Varieties  of  Chickens. 

No.    54.     Some  Common  Birds. 

No.    55.     The  Dairy  Herd. 

No.    59.     Bee-keeping. 

No.    62.     Marketing  Farm  Produce. 

No.    66.     Meadows  and  Pastures. 


RURAL    FREE    MAIL   DELIVERY  17 

No.    77.  The  Liming  of  Soils. 

No.    80.  The  Peach  Twig  Borer. 

No.    86.  Thirty  Poisonous  Plants. 

No.    91.  Potato  Diseases  and  Treatment. 

No.    95.  Good  Roads  for  Farmers. 

No.    99.  Insect  Enemies  of  Shade  Trees. 

No.  109.  Farmers '  Reading  Courses. 

No.  111.  Farmers'  Interest  in  Good  Seed. 

No.  113.  The  Apple. 

No.  126.  Practical  Suggestions  for  Farm  Buildings. 

No.  127.  Important  Insecticides. 

No.  128.  Eggs  and  Their  Uses  as  Food. 

No.  132.  Insect  Enemies  of  Growing  Wheat. 

No.  134.  Tree-planting  in  Rural  School  Grounds. 

No.  136.  Earth  Roads. 

No.  141.  Poultry  Raising  on  the  Farm. 

No.  154.  The  Home  Fruit  Garden. 

No.  155.  How  Insects  Affect  Health  in  Rural  Districts. 

No.  156.  The  Home  Vineyard. 

No.  161.  Practical  Suggestions  for  Fruit  Growers. 

No.  170.  Principles  of  Horse  Feeding. 

No.  173.  Primer  of  Forestry. 

No.  184.  Marketing  Live  Stock. 

No.  185.  Beautifying  the  Home  Grounds. 

No.  187.  Drainage  of  Farm  Lands. 

No.  192.  Barnyard  Manure. 

No.  196.  Usefulness  of  the  American  Toad. 

No.  198.  Strawberries. 

No.  199.  Corn  Growing. 

No.  203.  Canned  Fruits,  Preserves,  and  Jellies. 

No.  208.  Varieties  of  Fruits  Recommended  for  Planting. 

No.  213.  Raspberries. 

No.  215.  Alfalfa   Growing. 

No.  218.  The  School  Garden. 

No.  220.  Tomatoes. 

No.  228.  Forest  Planting  and  Farm  Management. 

No.  229.  The  Production  of  Good  Seed  Corn. 

No.  231.  Spraying  for  Cucumber  and  Melon  Diseases. 

No.  235.  Cement,  Mortar,  and  Concrete. 

No.  240.  Inoculation  of  Legumes. 

No.  241.  Butter  Making  on  the  Farm. 

No.  252.  An  Example  of  Model  Farming. 

No.  243.  Fungicides  and  Their  Use. 

No.  245.  Renovation  of  Worn-out  Soils. 

No.  247.  The  Control  of  the  Coddling  Moth  and  Apple  Scab. 

No.  248.  The  Lawn. 

No.  250.  The  Prevention  of  Smuts  in  Grain. 

No.  255.  The  Home  Vegetable  Garden. 

No.  256.  Preparation  of  Vegetables  for  the  Table. 


172  LESSONS    IN    AGRICU-LTUBE 

No.  260.     Seed  of  Red  Clover  in  Its  Impurities. 

No.  265.     Game  Laws  for  1906. 

No.  266.     Management  of  Soils  to  Conserve  Moisture. 

NOTE.  The  first  rural  route  ever  established  was 
from  Charlestown,  West  Virginia,  by  W.  L.  Wilson, 
Postmaster  General,  under  President  Cleveland. 

Sample  Letter  for  Bulletins 

22  Perry  St.,  Morgantown,  West  Va.. 

February  22,  1911. 
Secretary  of  Agriculture, 

Washington,  D.  C. 
Dear  Sir:  — 

Please   send   me  the   following   Farmers'   Bulletins   for   free 
distribution — address  as  above: 

No.  109. — Farmers'  Reading  Courses. 

No.  134. — Tree  Planting  on  School  Grounds. 

No.  161. — Practical  Suggestions  for  Fruit  Growers. 

No.  173. — Primer  of  Forestry. 

No.  185. — Beautifying  the  Home  Grounds. 

No.  199. — Corn  Growing. 

No.  218.— The  School  Garden. 

No.  247.— The  Control  of  the  Codling  Moth. 

No.    41. — Fowls,  Care  and  Feeding. 

No.    35.— Potato  Culture. 

Also  put  me  down  to  receive  the  Monthly  List  of  Publications. 

I  am  a  student  of  agriculture  in  the  —  School. 

Yours  sincerely, 


LESSON  LIV 

AGRICULTURAL   SOCIETIES 

Organization  of  boys'  and  girls'  agricultural  society. 
— In  the  school,  early  in  the  year,  let  a  Friday  afternoon 
be  devoted  to  the  organization  of  an  agricultural  society. 
All  boys  and  girls  should  know  how  to  organize  them- 
selves, for  in  this  way  is  learned  that  great  lesson  of  co- 
operation so  vitally  needed  to-day  in  rural  life. 

Let  one  of  the  older  boys,  at  the  suggestion  of  the 


AGRICULTURAL  SOCIETIES  173 

teacher,  call  the  meeting  to  order.     Then  let  some  hoy 
rise  and  say: 

"Mr.   Chairman,   1   nominate   John   Reihle    (for  ex- 
ample) for  president."    Another  rises  and  says: 

' '  Mr.  Chairman,  I  second  the  nomination. ' ' 

Then  let  some  one  rise  and  say ; 

"Mr.  Chairman,  if  there  are  no  other  nominations, 
I  move  that  John  R«ihle  be  declared  elected  president* 
of  this  society. ' ' 

Some  one  says,   "I   second  the   motion,"   then   the 
boy  who  is  acting  chairman  says: 

"It  has  been  moved  and  seconded  that  John  Reihle 
be  declared  president  of  this  society.  Are  there  any 
remarks?"  Hearing  none,  he  says,  "All  those  in  favor 
say,  'Aye'  ".  He  estimates  the  vote.  "All  those  op- 
posed say,  'no'  ".  If  he  receives  more  for  than  against, 
the  chairman  declares  that  John  is  elected. 
I  John  then  takes  the  place  of  the  chairman,  and 
conducts  the  meeting.  A  secretary  is  then  elected  as 
above,  preferably  from  among  the  girls.  The  following 
Constitution  and  By-Laws  should  be  read  by  one  of  the 
pupils,  and  adopted  by  the  society  as  a  tentative  work- 
ing plan : 

Constitution  and  By-Laws  of  the  Green  Valley  School  Agri- 
cultural Club 

Article  1. 

The  name  of  this  society  shall  be  the  Green  Valley 
School  Agricultural  Club. 
»  Article  2. 

The  objects  of  this  society  shall  be  to  encourage  the 


174  LESSONS   IN   AGRICULTURE 

study  of  Agriculture  in  the  school  and  home ;  to  promote 
contests  in  plant  growing,  animal  raising,  literary 
work,  etc. ;  and  to  cultivate  a  love  for  the  farm  and  home. 

Article  3. 

All  the  boys  and  girls  of  the  school  over  eight  years 
of  age  are  eligible  for  membership.  Any  person  over 
eight  and  under  fifteen,  in  the  district  and  not  in  school, 
may  be  elected  to  membership  by  a  majority  vote. 

Article  4. 

The  membership  fee  shall  be  ten  cents,  and  the  an- 
nual dues,  five  cents,  payable  at  the  beginning  of  the 
school  year. 

Article  5. 

The  officers  shall  consist  of  President,  Vice-president, 
Secretary,  Treasurer,  Speaker,  and  Usher. 

Article  6. 

It  is  the  duty  of  the  President  to  preside  at  all  meet- 
ings, preserve  order,  and  command  obedience  to  all 
rules.  His  emblem  is  a  red  ribbon  worn  on  the  lapel 
of  his  coat.  The  Vice-president  assists  the  President  and 
presides  in  his  absence.  His  emblem  is  a  blue  ribbon. 
The  Speaker  will  assist  the  President  and  Secretary  in 
arranging  the  literary  program  for  the  regular  meetings. 
His  emblem  is  a  green  ribbon.  The  Secretary  will  keep 
a  record  of  all  meetings,  receive  the  fees  and  dues  of  the 
members,  pay  the  same  to  the  Treasurer,  take  and  keep 
his  receipts  therefor.  His  emblem  is  the  white  ribbon. 

The  Treasurer  shall  take  charge  of  and  keep  all  the 
money  of  the  society,  and  pay  out  the  same  only  upon 


AGRICULTURAL    SOCIETIES  175 

orders  signed  by  the  President  and  Secretary.    His  em- 
blem is  the  yellow  ribbon. 

The  Usher  guards  the  door,  shows  members  and  visit- 
ors to  seats,  and  helps  the  President  preserve  order.  His 
emblem  is  a  blue  rod. 

Article  7. 

This  society  shall  meet  every  two  weeks  at  the  school 
house,  either  in  the  afternoon  or  evening  as  the  teacher 
decides.  Meetings  may  be  held  at  the  homes  of  members. 

Article  8. 

The  order  of  business  at  the  regular  meetings  shall 
be  as  follows : 

1.  Roll  call. 

2.  Reading  the  minutes  of  last  meeting. 

3.  Report  of  committees. 

4.  Proposals  for  membership. 

5.  Voting  on  new  members. 

6.  Literary  program. 

7.  Miscellaneous  business. 

8.  Adjournment. 

By-Laws 

1.  The  literary  program  prepared  by  the  Speaker, 
President,  and  Secretary,  shall  consist  of  music,  recita- 
tions, readings,  essays,  orations,  and  debates.     The  pro- 
gram shall  be  announced  by  the  Speaker,  two  weeks  in 
advance. 

2.  An  annual  exhibit  should  be  arranged,  perhaps 
best  in  the  autumn,  in  which  the  boys  will  exhibit  field 
or  garden  products  they   have   grown,   and  the   girls, 


17G  I.KSSONS    IN     A(  Mil  CULTURE 

flowers,  vegetables,  or  cookery.  In  preparing  for  this 
exhibit,  the  boys  should  each  select  in  the  spring  the 
plat  of  ground,  not  to  exceed  one  acre,  nor  less  than 
1-10  acre,  prepare,  plant  or  sow  any  crop  he  may  de- 
sire. Send  for  the  best  seeds,  either  to  the  Department 
of  Agriculture  at  Washington,  D.  C.,  or  to  the  State 
Agricultural  College.  From  either  of  these  places  the 
pupil  may  get  bulletins  on  any  crop  he  chooses  to  grow 
for  the  exhibit. 

3.  The  teacher  and  the  club  shall  organize  commit- 
tees to  solicit  prizes  to  award  at  the  exhibit  for  the  best 
vegetables,  grain,  animals,  cookery,  etc.,  brought  by  the 
pupils. 

4.  The  club  shall  take  an  annual  excursion,  visiting 
the  farms  and  homes  of  the  district.    This  may  take  the 
form  of  a  picnic  and  be  the  happy  ending  of  the  school 
term. 

5.  This  constitution  and  by-laws  may  be  amended  at 
any  meeting  by  a  two-thirds  vote,  provided  the  proposed 
amendment  is  posted  in  the  school  rooms  two  weeks 
before  adoption. 

(To  the  teacher:)  This  society  may  be,  and  if  a 
Grange  is  in  the  district,  should  be  developed  into  the 
Juvenile  Grange,  a  national  order,  recognized  by  the 
Patrons  of  Husbandry. 

The  Juvenile  Grange  is  a  most  excellent  organization 
for  young  people  of  the  country.  It  has  just  enough 
secret  work  about  it  to  make  it  attractive  to  young  folks, 
and  the  ceremonies  are  beautiful  and  full  of  good  les- 
sons which  every  boy  and  girl  should  heed.  In  chang- 


AGRICULTURAL    SOCIETIES  177 

ing  the  above  society  to  the  Juvenile  Grange,  write  to 
Prof.  T.  C.  Atkeson,  Morgantown,  W.  Va.,  Overseer  of 
the  National  Grange,  or  to  C.  M.  Freeman,  Tippecanoe 
City,  Ohio,  Secretary,  for  the  Manual  of  the  Juvenile 
Grange.  Juvenile  Granges  must  be  organized  under  the 
special  charge  of  a  Subordinate  Grange. 

LESSON  LV 

THE    GRANGE 

Let  us  learn  something  of  the  greatest  farmers'  or- 
ganization in  the  world — the  Grange,  or  the  Order  of 
Patrons  of  Husbandry. 

The  following  facts  about  the  Grange  were  submitted 
by  Prof.  T.  C.  Atkeson,  Master  of  the  West  Virginia 
State  Grange  and  Overseer  of  the  National  Grange: 

Origin  of  the  grange. — "The  idea  of  a  farmers' 
fraternal  organization  originated  in  the  mind  of  Oliver 
H.  Kelley,  a  Minnesota  farmer,  while  on  a  trip  through 
the  southern  states  in  1867,  soon  after  the  close  of  the 
great  Civil  War,  where  he  had  been  sent  by  President 
Johnson  to  see  what  might  be  done  to  rebuild  the  dev- 
astated agriculture  of  that  great  agricultural  region. 
Mr.  Kelley  was  a  high  degree  Free  Mason,  and  naturally 
his  idea  of  a  farmers'  organization  took  the  form  of  a 
secret  society.  Soon  after  his  return  to  Washington, 
where  he  reported  to  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  he 
paid  a  visit  to  his  niece,  Miss  Carrie  A.  Hall,  who  re- 
sided in  Boston,  and  outlined  to  her  his  proposed  farm- 
ers' organization.  Miss  Hall  suggested  that  farmers' 


LESSONS   IX    AGRICULTURE 

wives  and  daughters  be  admitted  on  full  equality  with 
the  men,  and  from  the  first,  the  organization  which  fol- 
lowed has  made  no  distinction  on  account  of  sex.  Mr. 
Kelley  unfolded  his  plans  to  a  number  of  gentlemen  in 
the  Department  of  Agriculture  and  elsewhere,  who  be- 
came interested  in  the  matter. 

Patrons  of  Husbandry.— "  The  first  meeting  was  held 
in  the  office  of  William  Saunders,  the  horticulturist  of 
the  Agricultural  Department  at  Washington,  on  the 
evening  of  December  the  fourth,  1867,  which  has  ever 
since  been  known  as  the  birthday  of  the  order.  The  or- 
ganization was  named,  'Patrons  of  Husbandry,'  and 
the  word,  'Grange,'  which  means  a  farm  home,  was 
substituted  for  'lodge'  as  used  by  other  organizations. 

Officers. — "There  are  Subordinate,  Pomona,  State, 
and  National  Granges,  each  one  of  which  is  represented 
by  delegates  in  the  next  highest  body  up  to  the  National 
Grange  which  is  the  supreme  authority.  All  Granges 
have  the  same  officers  as  follows:  Master,  Overseer, 
Lecturer,  Steward,  Assistant  Steward,  Chaplain,  Treas- 
urer, Secretary,  Gate  Keeper,  Ceres,  Pomona,  Flora, 
and  Lady  Assistant  Steward. 

Purposes  of  the  grange. — ' '  The  purpose  of  the  organ- 
ization is  to  promote  the  interest  of  agriculture  in  every 
legitimate  way  possible,  educationally,  legislatively,  co- 
operatively, and  socially,  with  a  view  to  develop  a  bet- 
ter manhood  and  womanhood  on  American  farms.  In 
its  forty  odd  years  of  history,  the  Grange  has  accom- 
plished a  vast  amount  of  good  for  American  farmers, 
and  practically  every  advancement  made  by  agriculture 


THE    GRANGE  179 

in  that  time  originated  with  the  Grange  or  has  been  ef- 
fectively promoted  by  it.  The  Grange  was  an  important 
factor  in  the  establishment  of  agricultural  colleges  and 
high  schools,  and  originated  the  idea  of  teaching  ele- 
mentary agriculture  in  the  public  schools.  Experiment 
stations  are  mainly  the  product  of  Grange  advocacy. 
Rural  mail  delivery,  the  Department  of  Agriculture, 
the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission,  and  hundreds 
of  other  measures  of  state  or  national  legislation  orig- 
inated with  the  Grange  or  were  promoted  by  it.  Its 
value  to  agriculture  is  beyond  computation. 

Work  of  the  grange. — "The  grange  is  a  live  institu- 
tion. It  is  satisfying  a  great  need  in  rural  society.  It 
is  based  on  correct  principles:  organization,  co-opera- 
tion, education.  It  is  neither  a  political  party  nor  a 
business  agency.  It  is  neither  ultra-radical  nor  forever 
in  the  rut.  Its  chief  work  is  on  cultural  lines.  It  in- 
eludes  the  entire  family.  It  is  now  growing,  and  its 
growth  is  of  a  permanent  character. 

"The  Grange  is  ambitious  to  take  its  place  beside 
the  school  and  the  church,  as  one  of  the  trinity  of  forces 
that  shall  mold  the  life  of  the  farmer  on  the  broad- 
est possible  basis — material,  intellectual,  social,  and 
ethical.  Is  there  any  good  reason  why  this  ambition 
is  not  worthy,  or  why  its  goal  should  not  be  won?" 
(President  Butterfield  of  the  Mass.  Agricultural  Col- 
lege, from  his  Chapters  on  Rural  Progress.) 


180  LESSONS    IN    AGRICULTURE 

Why  Farmers  Should  Join  the   Orange 

(By  the  authority  of  the  Master  of  the  National 

Grange.) 

1.  Because  it  is  inexpensive. 

2.  Because  it  is  the  farmer's  only  organization,  na- 
tional in  character. 

3.  Because  it  has  stood  the  test  for  more  than  forty 
years,  and  has  never  been  found  wanting  in  any  re- 
spect. 

4.  Because  it  has  exerted  greater  influence  in  se- 
curing state  and  national  legislation  in  the  interest  of 
agriculture  than  any  other  agency  in  the  country. 

5.  Because  it  is  officered  by  those  engaged  in  agri- 
culture, who  know  from  experience  the  needs  of  farm- 
ers, and  are  sincere  in  their  desire  to  aid  them  in  every 
possible  way. 

6.  Because  it  is  the  duty  of  farmers  to  co-operate 
with  one  another,  if  they  would  successfully  meet  the 
influence  of  organization  in  every  direction,  and  secure 
for  wife  and  home  a  fair  share  of  what  the  harvest 
yields. 

7.  Because   it   has   exerted   the   greatest    influence 
known  in  breaking  up  the  isolation  of  farm  life,  and 
in  making  farm  life  attractive  to  the  boys  and  girls, 
bringing  sunshine  and  happiness  into  the  farm  home 
to  such  an  extent  as  has  never  before  existed. 

After  the  teacher  has  discussed  this  lesson  with  the 
pupils,  all  the  text-books  should  be  laid  aside,  and  the 
pupils  asked  to  write  a  brief  essay  in  their  note-books 
on  the  Grange,  its  history,  plan  of  organization,  purposes 
and  work. 


MARCH 

On  the  farm. — With  the  coming  of  the  spring  months 
we  begin  to  get  interested  in  seeds  and  growing  plants. 
This  month  on  the  farm  we  shall  select  our  seed  corn 
more  carefully,  make  germination  tests,  spray  our 
fruit  trees  against  scale,  prune  the  grape-vines,  bushes, 
and  fruit  trees,  sow  clover  seed  in  the  wheat,  sow  oats, 
and  begin  planning  for  the  corn  crop.  It  is  to  be  a  busy 
month. 

LESSON  LVI 

STRUCTURE   OF   SEEDS 

Possibilities  in  seeds. — Seeds  are  such  common  ob- 
jects to  farm  boys  and  girls,  that  I  fear  sometimes  we 
do  not  appreciate  what  wonderful  things  they  are.  I 
say  wonderful,  because  no  one  understands  all  about 
them,  because  from  them  come  nearly  all  our  plants, 
and  upon  them  we  depend  for  most  of  our  food.  Within 
the  little  seed  is  wrapped  up  all  the  possibilities  of  size, 
color,  flavor,  shape — in  fact,  all  the  qualities  of  the 
grown  up  plant  it  is  to  become. 

Value  of  seeds. — Seeds  are  a  great  deal  like  your- 
selves. They  are  little  plants,  dressed  up,  carrying  din- 
ner baskets,  and  sent  forth  by  their  parents  into  the 
world  to  grow  up  as  nature  intended  them,  into  perfect 
plants.  Ought  we  not  to  be  interested  in  them  since  they 
do  so  much  for  us  ?  What  can  we  do  for  the  seeds  ?  We 

181 


182  I.KSSONS    IN    AGRICULTURE 

can  care  well  for  them,  plant  them  and  nurture  them. 
But  we  must  learn  more  about  them — learn  how  they 
are  made,  and  why  every  part  of  the  seed  is  formed  as 
it  is. 

Plants  live  to  produce  seed. — Plants  grow,  bear  leaf, 
stem,  flower,  and  fruit  for  the  sole  purpose  of  producing 
a  seed.  Why  does  the  plant  do  so  much  for  the  sake 
of  a  seed?  Because  in  the  seed  is  the  young  plant  and 
the  food  to  start  it,  well  protected  against  drought, 
cold,  and  other  forces  that  might  injure  it,  and  if  the 
old  plant  should  die  when  winter  comes,  the  seed  may 
live  on  and  produce  a  new  plant  again. 

In  the  practical  exercises  which  follow,  we  shall  see 
how  the  seed  is  made. 

Practical  Exercises 
1.    Study  of  the  Lima  Btan 

To  facilitate  the  study  of  seeds  they  should  be  left 
in  water  over  night. 

Observe  the  following  points  of  the  bean,  and  make 
a  sentence  note  of  each  of  the  words  in  black  type. 

1.  Markings  on  the  surface : 

(a)  Scar  or  hilum  where  the  seed'  was  attached  to 
the  pod. 

(b)  Near  the  hilum  a  small  opening,  the  micropyle. 

2.  Remove  the  coat  or  testa.    Near  the  hilum  a  small 
pointed  body,  the  caulicle,  will  be  seen. 

Separate  the  halves  or  cotyledons,  observe  that  the 
caulicle  bears  two  small  leaves,  the  plumule. 

The  cotyledons,  caulicle.  and  plumule  constitute  the 
embryo. 


STRUCTURE   OF   SEEDS 


183 


Make  a  drawing  of  the  whole  bean  showing  these 
parts,  and  of  the  single  cotyledon  with  the  caulicle  and 
plumule  in  place. 

2.     Study  of  the  Grain  of  Corn 

Soak  a  few  grains  of  corn  in  hot  water  for  twenty 
minutes  or  use  grains  that  have  soaked  in  water  over 
night.  With  a  sharp  knife  remove  the  tip  cap  at  the 
end  of  the  kernel.  Beginning  at  the  end  where  the 


FIG.  51.     KERNELS  OF  CORN  IN  SECTIONS  SHOWING  THE  GEBM 

hull  has  been  broken  at  the  tip  cap,  remove  the  hull  from 
the  entire  grain  in  strips.  The  part  immediately  under 
the  hull  is  called  the  horny  gluten.  Carefully  remove 
it  by  shaving  it  off  with  a  sharp  knife.  Now  remove  the 
germ  or  embryo.  Make  out  the  caulicle  and  plumule 
as  you  did  in  the  Lima  bean.  After  the  tip  cap,  hull, 


184  LESSONS    IX    AGRICULTURE 

horny  gluten,  and  germ  have  been  removed,  there  re- 
mains only  starch,  of  which  there  are  two  kinds — the 
horny  starch  and  the  white  starch.  The  horny  starch 
lies  at  the  back  and  sides  of  the  kernel.  The  white  starch 
is  at  the  crown  end  of  the  kernel  above  the  germ,  and 
nearly  surrounds  the  germ  toward  the  tip  of  the  kernel. 
Separate  as  far  as  possible  the  horny  starch  and  the 
white  starch.  Make  an  enlarged  drawing  of  the  front 
view  of  a  grain  of  corn,  showing  and  naming  the  parts. 

NOTE.  All  seeds  except  the  seeds  of  conifers,  are  of 
one  of  these  two  types.  In  the  bean,  there  are  two 
cotyledons,  and  the  food  material  of  the  seed  is  stored  in 
these  cotyledons. 

In  the  corn  there  is  only  one  cotyledon,  and  the 
food  material  is  stored  outside  of  the  embryo,  in  a  part 
called  the  endosperm. 

3.     Study  of  a  Grain  of  Wheat 

Soak  a  few  grains  of  wheat  in  warm  water.  With  a 
sharp  knife  try  to  remove  the  covering  of  the  grain. 
There  are  four  of  these  coverings  on  a  grain  of  wheat, 
three  epidermic  layers  and  one  testa  or  true  seed  coat. 
These  coats  constitute  the  bran  and  make  up  about  11% 
of  the  grain.  Immediately  under  the  testa  is  the  en- 
dosperm. This  makes  up  a  large  part  of  the  seed  and  is 
the  flour  of  commerce.  Note  the  position,  form,  and 
size  of  the  embryo.  Make  a  diagram  representing  a 
cross  section  of  a  grain  of  wheat,  showing  all  these  parts. 

NOTE  TO  TEACHERS.  Send  for  "School  Set  of  Eco- 
nomic Seeds,"  to  Edgar  Brown,  Seed  Laboratory,  De- 
partment of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C. 


GERMINATION  SEEDS,  GROWTH  SEEDLINGS      185 


LESSON  LVII 

GERMINATION  OF  SEEDS  AND  GROWTH  OF  SEEDLINGS 

Plant-food  in  seeds. — Plants,  like  animals,  must  have 
food  and  drink,  and  like  animals  they  perish  without 


FIG.  52.     GROWING  CORN 

them.  "We  have  told  what  some  of  these  plant  foods  are, 
and  now  we  shall  find  out  the  way  in  which  the  young 
plants  get  their  first  food.  You  will  remember  the  little 
bean  plant  which  you  saw  snugly  tucked  between  the 
two  halves  of  the  seed.  These  two  fleshy  cotyledons,  as 


186  LESSONS    IN    AGRICULTURE 

they  are  called,  serve  as  a  storehouse  for  the  food  of  the 
little  bean  plant.  In  the  kernel  of  corn  the  same  kind 
of  a  little  plant  was  seen,  but  instead  of  two  cotyledon 
storehouses  of  food,  there  is  only  one  cotyledon.  We 
are  often  told  that  the  plant  stores  up  food  in  the  seeds 
for  our  use,  and  although  we  do  use  this  stored  up  food 
for  our  own  food  in  many  cases,  nature  intended  this 
food  matter,  not  for  man,  but  for  the  little  plant,  to 
use  for  its  own  growth  until  it  is  large  enough  to  get 
food  for  itself  directly  from  the  soil. 

Essentials  to  plant  growth. — The  little  bean  plant 
between  the  cotyledons  of  the  seed  cannot  begin  to  grow 
or  germinate  with  its  stored  up  food  alone ;  it  must  have 
outside  help.  We  usually  plant  the  seed,  and  in  the 
ground  it  finds  the  needed  help.  Of  course,  we  know 
that  in  the  ground  the  seed  finds  moisture,  heat,  and  air, 
and  these  are  the  essentials  of  germination.  These 
points  we  shall  try  to  prove  in  the  practical  exercise. 
Good  seed  and  proper  conditions  of  soil,  moisture,  air, 
heat,  and  light  are  essentials  to  plant  growth,  and  a 
part  of  the  study  of  agriculture  consists  in  determining 
how  to  control  these  conditions. 

Practical  Exercises 
1.     Essentials  of  Germination 

Place  a  dozen  good  seeds  of  any  kind  on  a  woolen 
cloth  or  blotting  paper  in  each  of  two  tin  pans.  Cover 
the  seeds  in  the  first  pan  with  water  and  keep  them  com- 
pletely covered.  In  the  second  pan  keep  the  cloth  or 
paper  on  which  the  seeds  are  placed  always  moist,  but 


GERMINATION  SEEDS,  GROWTH  SEEDLINGS     187 

do  not  allow  water  to  stand  around  the  seeds.  Invert 
other  tin  pans  over  these  seed  pans.  Which  seeds  ger- 
minate? Why? 

Prepare  two  pans  of  seeds  as  you  did  the  second  one 
above.     Place  one  pan  out  of  doors  in  a  cold  place,  and 


Courtesy  of  D.  W.  Worklrtff 
FIG.  53.     GERMINATING  CORN  SHOWING  ROOT  HAIRS 

leave  the  other  in  the  house  where  it  is  warm.     Note 
the  difference  in  the  germination.     Explain. 

2.  To  Show  the  Function  of  Cotyledons 
Remove  the  two  cotyledons  of  a  germinating  bean,  and 
insert  the  growing  roots  through  a  piece  of  mosquito 
netting,  tied  over  a  tumbler  into  the  water  with  which 
the  glass  is  filled.  Insert  another  germinating  bean 
from  which  the  cotyledons  have  not  been  removed.  Note 
the  comparative  growth  of  the  two  seedlings.  Explain. 


188 


I.KSSONS     IN     ACKKTI/ITKK 


S.  Testing  Seeds  for  Germination  and  Purity 
Send  to  the  Extension  Department  of  Purdue  Agri- 
cultural College,  at  Lafayette,  Indiana,  enclosing  35c, 
for  their  collection  of  mounted  weed  seeds.  This  is  a 
very  valuable  collection,  and  will  serve  in  a  practical 
lesson.  Get  samples  of  clover  seed  from  the  stores  or 
from  home,  and  spread  out  a  quantity  of  the  seed  on 
a  sheet  of  white  paper.  Examine  it  very  carefully  with 


FIG.  54 


Courtesy  of  D.  W.  Working 


a  hand  lens,  and  by  the  aid  of  the  weed  seed  collection, 
pick  out  the  seeds  that  are  not  clover.  Count  out  one 
hundred  seeds  and  determine  what  per  cent  of  them 
are  weed  seeds.  Place  the  remaining  clover  seeds,  from 
which  the  weed  seeds  have  been  taken,  on  the  moist  cloth 
in  the  germinating  pan,  and  cover  for  a  few  days.  Count 
the  number  of  seeds  that  failed  to  germinate,  and  calcu- 
late the  percentage  of  good  seeds  there  were  in  the  origi- 
nal one  hundred.  At  the  price  paid  for  the  clover  seed 


GERMINATION  SEEDS,  GROWTH  SEEDLINGS      189 

with  all  its  impurities,  how  much  does  the  farmer  pay 
for  the  pure  seed  ? 

4.     Absorption  of  Water  in  Germination 
Fill  a  bottle  with  dry  pea  seeds,  and  add  as  much 
water  as  the  bottle  will  hold.     Cork  tightly,  and  secure 
the  stopper  by  means  of  a  wire.    Set  the  bottle  of  peas 
aside  for  a  few  hours  and  note  the  result.    Explain. 

Table  showing  legal  weight  per  bushel  of  farm  products: 

Wheat 60  Ibs.      Buckwheat 50  Ibs. 

Peas    60  Ibs.      Oats  32  Ibs. 

Beans    60  Ibs.      Clover  Seed 60  Ibs. 

Irish   Potatoes 60  Ibs.      Cotton   Seed 28  Ibs. 

Sweet  Potatoes 50  Ibs.      Millet    50  Ibs. 

Onions  56  Ibs.      Orchard  Grass  Seed 14  ibs. 

Corn    (shelled) 56  Ibs.      Peanuts    23  Ibs. 

Corn  in  ear,  shucked ....  70  Ibs.  Red  Top  Grass  Seed ....  14  Ibs. 

Rye    56  Ibs.      Timothy  Grass  Seed 45  Ibs. 

Barley   48  Ibs.  Italian  Rye  Grass  Seed.  .20  Ibs. 

Handy  Values 

A  bushel  requires  about  114  cubic  feet  of  space. 

A  bushel  of  corn  in  the  ear  requires  about  2  cubic  feet 
of  space. 

A  barrel  of  water  requires  about  4  cubic  feet  of  space. 

A  ton  of  hay  fills  about  512  cubic  feet  of  space,  or 
8x8x8  cubic  feet. 

A  cubic  foot  of  water  weighs  62  y2  pounds. 

NOTE.  I :     All  the  above  should  be  memorized. 

NOTE  II :  Pupils  should  also  memorize  table  of  avoir- 
dupois weight,  dry  measure,  liquid  measure,  long  meas- 
ure, square  measure,  and  cubic  measure,  with  all  the 
necessary  abbreviations. 


190  LESSONS   IN    AGRICULTURE 

Problems 

1.  How  many  pounds  of  wheat  are  grown  on  an  acre 
yielding  25  bushels? 

2.  How  many  pounds  are  grown  on  eight  acres  at 
the  same  rate  ?    How  many  tons  ? 

3.  How  many  square  rods  in  an  acre?     How  many 
pounds  would  that  be  per  square  rod  ? 

4.  What  is  the  value  per  acre  of  the  above  at  80c 
per  bushel? 

5.  At  the  same  rate  what  is  the  value  of  all  the 
wheat  grown  on  a  piece  of  land  containing  240  square 
rods? 

6.  At  90c  per  bushel  what  is  the  value  of  the  wheat 
grown  on  an  acre  if  the  yield  is  20  bushels? 

7.  Which  is  the  more  valuable,  the  crop  in  problem 
4  or  that  in  problem  6? 

8.  If  20  bushels  of  90c  wheat  can  be  grown  on  an 
acre,  how  many  pounds  is  that  per  acre?    What  is  the 
price  per  pound?     How  many  pounds  are  grown  on  a 
square  rod?    What  is  the  value  of  the  wheat  grown  on 
a  square  rod? 

9.  At  the  same  rate  and  price,  what  is  the  value  of 
the  wheat  grown  on  a  piece  of  ground  14  rods  wide  and 
20  rods  long  ? 

10.  How  many  acres  in  a  field  40  rods  long  and  24 
rods  wide? 

11.  If  a  man  can  plow  2  acres  per  day,  how  long 
will  it  take  him  to  plow  the  above  field?     What  will 
it  cost  at  $2  per  day  ? 


GERMINATION  SEEDS,  GROWTH  SEEDLINGS      191 

12.  What  will  be  the  cost  of  plowing  a  40  acre 
field  at  the  same  rate  ? 

18.  If  a  man  and  team  can  seed  8  acres  per  day 
how  long  will  it  take  to  seed  a  40  acre  field?  What 
will  it  cost  at  $2  per  day  ? 

14.  At  50c  per  acre  what  will  be  the  cost  of  cutting 
this  crop? 

15.  It  will  cost  about  $0.25  per  acre  to  stack  the 
grain.    Find  the  cost  of  stacking. 

16.  AVhat  is  the  threshing  bill  at  2  cents  per  bushel  ? 
Find  the  entire  cost  of  the  crop. 

17.  If  the  yield  has  been  20  bushels  per  acre,  worth 
90  cents  per  bushel,  how  much  has  the  farmer  made 
over  and  above  the  entire  cost  of  labor  ? 

18.  How  much  has  he  made  if  the  crop  has  yielded 
25  bushels  per  acre,  worth  $0.80  per  bushel? 

19.  Have  any  items  of  the  cost  of  producing  this 
wheat  been  omitted?     If  so,  what?     Should  we  allow 
for  them  ?    Let  us  do  so  and  find  the  result. 

20.  With  a  crop  of  50  bushels  of  shelled  corn  per 
acre,  worth  $0.40  per  bushel,  work  the  same  series  of 
problems,  omitting  such  as  do  not  apply  to  corn  raising. 

LESSON  LVIII 

JUDGING  AND  SCORING  SEED  CORN 

Selecting  seed  corn. — We  must  now  make  a  careful 
selection  of  our  seed  corn  stored  away  last  autumn.  It 
is  our  plan  to  plant  ten  acres — field  number  1,  on  our 


192  LESSONS    l\     \I;IMI  TLTURE 

t;u  111.  and  it  will  take  about  150  ears  of  corn  to  make 
sure  that  we  have  enough.  It  is  now  time  to  find  out 
what  a  good  ear  is,  and  to  determine  this  it  is  necessary 
to  see  it  in  all  its  parts.  Not  knowing  the  germinating 
quality  without  actual  trial,  we  shall  have  to  be  con- 
tent in  this  first  step  of  corn  judging  with  what  might 
be  termed  a  good  show  ear.  The  object  of  corn  judging 
is  to  determine  the  corn  of  highest  quality,  either  for 
feeding  or  market,  and  which  is  consequently  most 
profitable  to  grow. 

The  score  card. — The  study  of  the  desirable  charac- 
teristics of  corn  has  led  to  the  formulation  of  a  stand- 
ard scale  of  points  or  "corn  score  card."  The  use  of 
the  score  card  has  been  adopted  as  the  best  means  of 
comparing  samples  of  corn,  and  is  a  valuable  guide  to 
the  student  of  corn  judging  in  estimating  the  merits  of 
points  in  samples  of  corn. 

Samples  for  scoring. — In  corn-judging  contests  or  in 
schools,  ten  ears  of  corn  are  usually  scored  as  a  single 
sample.  Each  ear  may  be  scored  separately,  or  the  whole 
ten  may  be  averaged  in  one  grade  on  each  point  of  the 
score  card.  For  practical  planting  purposes  and  for  our 
school  lesson  we  shall  judge  each  ear  separately.  Study 
carefully  the  illustrations  of  prize  corn,  and  note  as  best 
you  can  what  may  be  required  to  make  a  perfect  ear. 

NOTE.  This  lesson  may  be  given  in  the  fall  in  con- 
nection with  Lesson  14,  if  so  desired. 

The  following  score  card  is  used  by  the  Indiana  Corn 
Growers'  Association.  The  number  opposite  each  of  the 
twelve  points  represents  the  perfect  grade : 


JUDGING    AND    SCORING    SEED    CORN 


193 


Name  of  variety . 
Name   of   scorer. 


.     Table  No. 
Sample   No. 


1.      Trueness   to 

1 

L' 

3 

» 

:. 

(i 

7 

8 

! 

10 

Typo  or   Breed                            10 
Characteristics 

2.     Shape  of   Ears                            5 

3.     Color   of   Grain   and   Cob      10 

4.     Vitality   or   Seed 
Condition                                     10 

5.     Tips    of    Ears                                 5 

6.   Butts    of    Ears                                 5 

7.     Kernel    Uniformity                    10 

8.     Kernel  Shape                              10 

9.     Length   of  Ears                          5 

10.     Circumference   of    Ears            5 

11.     Space    between 
Rows   and    Kernels                    10 

12.     Proportion   of 
Corn   to   Cob                               15 

Total 100 


I        I        I 


Explanation  of  the  Score  Card 

1.  Trueness  to  type  or  breed.    Ten  points  perfect. 
The  ear  should  be  true  to  the  breed  characteristics 

in  size,  shape,  color,  shape  of  kernel,  etc. 

2.  Shape  of  ear.    5  points  perfect. 

The  ear  should  be  full  and  strong  in  the  middle,  and 
should  not  taper  too  rapidly  towards  the  top.  Rows 
should  be  straight. 

3.  Color  of  grain  and  cob.    10  points  perfect. 

The  color  should  be  true  to  the  variety,  and  free  from 
mixture.  White  corn  should  have  white  cobs,  and  yel- 
low corn,  red  cobs.  Cut  about  one  point  for  five  or 
six  colored  grains. 


194  LESSONS    IN   AGRICULTURE 

4.  Vitality  or  seed  condition.    10  points  perfect. 
The  ear  should  be  well  matured,   firm,  and  sound. 

The  germ  should  be  large,  fresh,  and  vigorous  looking. 

5.  Tips  of  ears.    5  points  perfect. 

The  tip  should  be  regular  and  not  too  tapering.  Tip 
should  be  well  covered,  with  straight  rows  of  regular 
kernels.  Cut  one-half  point  for  tips  exposed  one  inch. 

6.  Butts  of  ears.    5  points  perfect. 


FIG.  55.     PRIZE  EARS  AT  WEST  VIRGINIA  CORN  SHOW 

The  rows  of  kernels  should  extend  in  regular  order 
over  the  end  of  the  cob,  leaving  a  depression  when 
the  shank  is  removed. 

7.  Kernel  uniformity.    10  points  perfect. 

The  kernels  should  be  uniform  in  size,  color,  shape, 
and  identation,  and  true  to  the  variety  type. 

8.  Kernel  shape.     10  points  perfect. 

The  kernels  should  be  deep  and  so  shaped  that  their 
edges  touch  from  tip  to  crown.  The  tips  of  the  kernels 
should  be  full  and  strong. 

9.  Length  of  ear.    5  points  perfect. 


JUDGING    AND    SCORING    SEED    CORN 


195 


The  length  should  conform  to  the  standard  for  the 
variety  used.  From  eight  to  ten  inches  is  the  usual 
standard  length.  Cut  one-half  point  for  each  inch  of 
deficiency. 

10.     Circumference  of  ears.    5  points  perfect. 

The  circumference  should   be  in   proportion  to  the 


FIG.  56.     PROPORTION  OF  CORN  TO  COB 

length,  that  is,  about  three-fourths  the  length,  measured 
at  one-third  the  distance  from  butt  to  tip.  For  each  inch 
deficiency  or  excess,  cut  !/o  point. 

11.  Space  between  rows  and  kernels.  10  points  per- 
fect. 

The  furrows  between  rows  should  be  wide  enough  to 
allow  the  ear  to  dry  out  readily,  but  not  so  wide  as  to 
lose  in  proportion  of  corn  to  cob.  Much  space  between 
kernels  is  highly  objectionable. 


196  LESSONS   IN    AGRICULTURE 

There  should  be  not  less  than  16  rows,  and  6  or  7 
grains  to  an  inch  in  each  row. 

12.     Proportion  of  corn  to  cob.    15  points  perfect. 

The  proportion  should  be  determined  by  weight.  The 
proportion  of  corn  to  cob  should  not  be  less  than  86%. 
Cut  iy^%  for  each  per  cent  below  the  standard. 

Practical  Exercises 
1.    Scoring  Seed  Corn 

Copy  the  foregoing  score  card  in  your  permanent  note- 
book. Select  ten  ears  of  corn,  keeping  the  idea  of 
"mates"  in  mind.  The  ears  should  look  as  much  alike  in 
every  way  as  it  is  possible  to  find  them.  Find  ears  all 
the  same  length,  the  same  circumference,  the  grains  the 
same  size  and  shape,  without  any  indications  of  mix- 
ture, the  rows  running  straight  from  tip  to  butt,  and 
measuring  up  to  the  standard  of  the  score  card  as  much 
as  possible. 

Grade  each  ear  of  corn  on  each  of  the  points,  and 
put  down  on  the  score  card  your  estimate  of  how  the 
ear  measures  up  to  the  perfect  grade.  It  is  not  ex- 
pected that  you  will  become  expert  in  one  lesson,  but 
you  will  enjoy  the  improvement  you  make  in  this  work. 

2.     Selecting  Seed  Ears 

Using  the  ear  of  corn  which  you  have  graded  the  high- 
est on  your  score  card  as  a  model,  look  over  your  entire 
lot  of  seed  corn,  and  select  one  hundred  ears  which  ac- 
cording to  your  judgment  most  closely  resemble  this 
sample  ear.  Number  all  these  ears  from  1  to  100,  by 
tying  to  each  a  numbered  tag,  or  by  sticking  a  numbered 


TESTING  SEED  CORN  197 

peg  into  the  butt  of  each  cob.  These  are  now  to  be  laid 
away  for  the  germination  test  described  in  the  next  les- 
son. 

LESSON  LIX 

TESTING  SEED  CORN 

We  have  now  selected  the  ears  of  corn  with  which  to 
plant  our  ten  acres  on  the  farm.  We  have  numbered 
each  ear  and  placed  it  by  itself,  and  we  are  now  ready 
to  make  the  germination  test,  for  we  wish  to  be  sure  that 
every  grain  we  plant  will  germinate  vigorously. 

Value  of  good  seed. — One  of  the  most  important 
modern  movements  for  the  improvement  of  agriculture 
in  this  country  consists  in  the  proper  selection,  care,  and 
testing  of  the  seeds  to  be  planted.  When  we  remember 
that  the  seed  carries  with  it  all  the  characteristics  of 
the  parent  plants  from  which  it  came,  we  want  to  be 
sure  that  these  parent  plants  are  just  as  nearly  perfect 
as  possible.  When  we  remember  that  the  seed  is  a  liv- 
ing thing,  containing  a  young  and  tender  plant,  we  see 
the  necessity  of  properly  caring  for  the  seed  during  its 
resting  period.  And  when  we  understand  that  sickly 
or  dead  seeds  cannot  grow  into  valuable  plants,  we  shall 
no  longer  be  willing  to  put  them  into  the  ground,  which 
we  expect  to  cultivate,  and  from  which  we  expect  to 
gather  a  full  harvest. 

Testing  seed  corn  for  life  and  vigor. — It  has  come  to 
be  true  that  almost  every  farmer  and  country  school 
boy  now  understands  the  importance  of  testing  seed  corn 
before  planting — and  testing  it  in  the  ear  rather  than 


198  LESSOXS    IN    AGBICULTURE 

after  shelling.  But  many  farmers  fail  to  do  as  well  as 
they  know  in  this  matter,  as  well  as  in  many  other  mat- 
ters, because  it  is  "too  much  trouble."  Many  farmers 
say  that  they  can  tell  whether  a  kernel  of  corn  will  ger- 
minate by  cutting  or  biting  off  the  tip  cap  and  examining 
the  germ.  No  doubt  most  experienced  corn  growers  can 
do  this,  but  even  by  this  simple  method  they  can  not  tell 
which  ears  of  corn  will  germinate  most  vigorously,  and 
it  is  the  sure  and  healthy  germination  that  counts  most 
throughout  the  entire  life  of  the  growing  corn  plant. 
The  boys  and  girls  of  the  school  will  want  to  use  the 
surer  and  better  method  of  testing  seed  corn. 

Practical  Exercises 
1.     The  Germinating  Test  Box 

Make  a  shallow  box  about  two  inches  deep  inside,  fif- 
teen inches  wide  and  twenty-three  inches  long.  Partly 
fill  the  box  with  fine  sand.  The  box  may  now  be  di- 
vided into  small  squares  by  a  checkboard  lacing  of  wire 
or  twine  across  the  top.  It  is  convenient  to  have  these 
squares  about  lJ/2  inches  on  a  side,  ten  of  them  in  a 
row  across  the  narrow  way,  and  fifteen  the  other  way. 
Another  way  to  obtain  the  squares,  is  to  place  over 
the  sand  a  cloth  which  has  been  checked  into  100  squares 
by  an  indelible  pencil,  or  better  still,  with  ink.  Num- 
ber each  square  from  one  to  one  hundred.  The  figure 
below  shows  the  manner  of  wiring  and  numbering  when 
the  first  method  is  used. 

Now  take  each  ear  separately,  and  with  the  point  of  a 
pocket  knife  remove  five  kernels  from  the  ear.  The 
kernels  should  be  taken  in  succession  from  about  an 


TESTING   SEED    CORN 


199 


inch  above  the  base  of  the  ear  to  the  same  distance  be- 
low its  tip,  passing  spirally  around  and  lengthwise  of 
the  ear,  so  that  no  two  grains  are  taken  from  the  same 
row.  Place  the  kernels  in  the  square  corresponding  in 
number  to  the  number  of  the  ear,  place  the  germ  side  of 
the  kernels  against  the  wet  cloth  or  sand,  and  lay  the 
ear  away  in  its  place.  When  the  box  has  been  planted 


FIG.  57.     A  GERMINATING  TEST  Box 

the  sand  should  be  thoroughly  watered.  If  the  cloth 
has  been  used,  the  corn  should  be  covered  with  a  second 
wet  cloth,  and  this  with  a  dry  cloth  to  prevent  excess 
of  evaporation.  The  box  should  be  kept  in  a  warm  room 
where  it  will  not  be  disturbed  until  the  test  is  finished. 
The  planted  tray  should  not  be  allowed  to  dry  out  until 
the  young  corn  plants  are  an  inch  or  two  above  the  sand. 
The  ear  that  does  not  show  all  five  kernels  germinating 


200  LESSONS    IN    AC  K  (CULTURE 

vigorously  should  not  be  planted  in  the  field.  Every 
poor  ear  planted  spoils  about  one-fifteenth  of  an  acre  in 
the  cornfield — and  yet  some  farmers  would  blame  it 
on  the  crows  or  the  weather,  or  something  else  which 
they  could  not  help.  This  is  certainly  a  better  way  to 
get  a  "stand"  of  corn  than  to  plant  "one  for  the  black- 
bird, one  for  the  crow,  one  for  the  cut-worm  and  two 
to  grow." 

After  selecting  the  ears  that  will  be  used  as  seed, 
place  them  where  they  will  be  protected  from  freezing, 
moulding,  or  getting  wet.  Each  pupil  should  bring  sam- 
ples of  seed  corn  from  his  home  and  make  the  germinat- 
ing test  at  school,  or  have  a  box  of  his  own  at  home  and 
test  the  seed  corn  there  and  report  the  results  at  school. 
Keep  a  note-book  record  of  the  results  of  these  tests. 

NOTE.  The  practice  of  smoking  the  seed  corn  before 
shelling  and  planting  has  proven  an  effective  preventive 
against  the  corn-root  louse  and  other  insect  pests  of  the 
sprouting  grain. 

References:     Fanners'  Bulletin,  No.  253,  No.  409. 


LESSON  LX 

THE    PLANT    AND    WATER 

We  are  now  ready  to  study  the  growth  of  the  plant 
from  the  seed  into  root,  stem  and  leaf,  and  to  under- 
stand how  the  plant  gets  its  food.  We  have  already 
learned  that  the  seed  furnishes  the  food  for  the  little 
plant  until  it  is  large  enough  to  get  food  from  the  soil. 


THE  PLANT  AND  WATER  201 

We  also  learned  in  a  former  lesson  that  the  most  im- 
portant plant  foods  are:  Water,  lime,  iron  oxide,  soda, 
ammonia,  silicon,  magnesia,  potash,  carbon  dioxide,  phos- 
phoric acid,  etc. 

Water  as  a  plant  food  and  solvent. — Perhaps  the 
most  important  plant  food  is  water.  Every  one  knows 
that  plants  cannot  live  without  water,  but  few  persons 
stop  to  think  of  the  enormous  amount  of  water  consumed 
daily  by  an  acre  of  growing  vegetation.  Plants  make 
use  of  water  in  two  ways.  In  the  first  place  they  use 
it  as  a  food,  just  the  same  as  animals  do.  In  the  sec- 
ond place  a  plant  cannot  eat  solid  food.  It  has  neither 
mouth  nor  teeth,  and  it  must  take  in  its  food  in  liquid 
form  through  its  roots,  or  in  gaseous  form  through  its 
leaves.  The  solid  foods  mentioned  above  dissolve  in  wa- 
ter, just  as  sugar  dissolves  in  coffee,  and  in  this  dissolved 
condition  they  are  easily  taken  in  by  the  plant  roots. 
The  plant  fluid  containing  these  dissolved  foods  is  called 
sap.  The  solid  food  and  some  of  the  water  taken  up 
by  the  plant  roots  and  carried  through  the  stem  to  the 
leaves  is  used  by  the  plant  for  growth,  and  the  re- 
maining water  not  used  for  food  is  thrown  off  into  the 
air  through  little  pores  in  the  leaves.  This  is  she  rea- 
son why  plants  need  so  much  water.  Grains,  grasses, 
and  orchards  use  up  hundreds  of  tons  of  water  during 
the  growing  season. 

Control  of  water  for  plants. — We  have  also  learned 
that  the  farmer  can  regulate  the  amount  of  water  in 
the  soil  to  a  certain  extent.  If  there  is  too  much  water, 


202 


LESSONS    IX    AGRICULTURE 


he  can  drain  it  away.     If  there  is  need  of  saving  all 
the    rainfall    possible,    he    can   by    deep    plowing    and 


Oxyfferr   from 

Soi I  Spaces 


FIG.  58.     DIAGRAM  OF  A  PLANT.  SHOWING  ITS  MOST  IMPORTANT  RELA- 
TIONS :    SUNLIGHT,   MOISTURE,   OXYGEN,  AND   SOIL 


careful  cultivation  save  a  large  share  of  the  moisture 
in  a  time  of  drought. 


THE  PLANT  AND  WATER 


203 


Practical  Exercises 
1.     To  Prove  that  Plants  Throw  off  Water 

Put  the  same  amount 
of  water  into  similar 
vessels  —  tumblers  or 
glass  fruit  jars.  Pull 
up  any  thrifty  growing 
plant  and  put  its  roots 
into  one  of  these  vessels 
of  water.  Stand  both 
vessels  on  a  table  side 
by  side.  Note  the  dif- 
ference in  the  amount 
of  water  in  each  vessel 
day  by  day.  What  has 
caused  the  loss  of  water 
in  each  vessel?  Why 
the  difference? 

The  same  fact  may  be 

shown  by  placing  a  clean  dry  glass  vessel  over  a  grow- 
ing plant.  Where  does  the  moisture  come  from  that 
appears  on  the  inner  surface  of  the  glass?  How  can 
you  show  that  this  does  not  come  from  the  soil? 

2.  Air-derived  and  Soil-derived  Foods 
Select  a  dry  plant  or  a  piece  of  dry  wood.  Weigh  it 
carefully.  Now  burn  it  and  weigh  the  ashes.  What 
per  cent  of  the  plant  burned?  What  per  cent  is  ashes? 
The  ashes  represent  the  food  derived  from  the  soil  when 
the  plant  was  growing,  and  the  part  that  burned  repre- 
sents the  food  derived  from  the  air. 


204  LESSONS   IN   AGRICULTURE 

Free  Bulletins,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture 

Fanners'  Bulletins 

No.    46. — Irrigation  in  Humid  Climates. 

No.  116. — Irrigation  in  Fruit  Growing. 

No.  138. — Irrigation  in  Field  and  Garden. 

No.  158. — How  to  Build  Small  Irrigation  Ditches. 

Table  showing  proportions  of  water  in  farm  crops: 

One  bushel  of  root  crops  contains  about  55  pounds  of  water. 

One  bushel  of  potatoes  contains  about  45  pounds  of  water. 

One  bushel  of  corn  (dry,  shelled)  contains  about  5  pounds  of 
water. 

One  bushel  of  wheat  contains  about  6  pounds  of  water. 

One  bushel  of  oats  contains  about  3  pounds  of  water. 

One  ton  of  dry  hay  contains  about  300  pounds  of  water. 

One  ton  of  green  feed  contains  from  1,500  to  1,800  pounds  of 
water. 

NOTE.  This  represents  only  the  water  left  in  the  plants  and 
seeds  as  a  part  of  them.  By  far  the  greater  amount  used  by  the 
plant  passes  off  to  the  air  through  the  pores  in  the  leaves. 

Problems 

1.  If  rain  falls  an  inch  deep  on  the  level,  how  many 
cubic  inches  is  that  per  square  foot  ?    Per  square  yard  ? 
Per  square  rod  ?    How  many  cubic  feet  per  square  rod  ? 
Per  acre  ? 

2.  About  how  many  barrels  of  water  fall  on  an  acre 
with  one  inch  rainfall? 

3.  How  many  tons  will  this  water  weigh? 

4.  The  total  rainfall  during  the  year  in  West  Vir- 
ginia is  about  four  feet.     What  does  the  water  weigh 
that  falls  during  the  year  on  a  square  yard  of  ground? 
On  a  square  rod  ?    How  many  tons  to  the  acre  ? 

5.  Suppose  the  plants  use  one-eighth  of  this,  what 
is  the  weight  of  the  water  used  by  a  square  yard  of 
vegetation  ?    A  square  rod  ?    An  acre  ? 

6.  Suppose  potatoes  contain  three-fourths  of  their 


BOOT   SYSTEM   OF   PLANT  205 

weight  of  water.     How  many  pounds  of  water  in  a 
bushel  of  potatoes? 

7.  If  150  bushels  per  acre  of  potatoes  is  a  good  yield, 
how  many  pounds  of  water  in  the  potatoes  grown  on  an 
acre? 

LESSON  LXI 

THE  ROOT  SYSTEM  OF  THE  PLANT 

Kinds  of  root  systems. — The  root  system  of  the  plant 
consists  of  the  entire  group  of  roots  upon  the  plant. 
There  are  two  kinds  of  root  systems : 

(1)  Tap-root — central  main  root  with  smaller  roots 
coming  out  from  it.     Examples  may  be  found  in  the 
beet,  radish,  and  turnip. 

(2)  Fibrous  root — many  roots  of  nearly  the  same 
size.     Examples  of  this  type  are  seen  in  the  grasses, 
such  as  timothy  and  blue  grass.     Either  of  these  two 
types  may  have  many  modifications. 

Roots  and  tillage. — Methods  of  cultivation  should 
take  into  account  the  nature  of  the  roots  of  the  plants. 
Tap-rooted  plants  require  depth  of  soil,  and  will  permit 
deeper  and  closer  cultivation  than  fibrous  rooted  plants. 
On  the  other  hand,  fibrous  rooted  plants,  such  as  the 
corn,  are  often  injured  by  too  deep  cultivation  during 
the  growing  season.  The  fibrous  roots  of  such  plants 
are  near  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  when  destroyed 
by  deep  cultivation,  much  of  the  food  supply  of  the 
plant  is  cut  off,  and  to  that  extent  the  plant  is  injured 
or  retarded  in  its  growth. 


206 


LESSONS    IN    AGRICULTURE 


Root-hairs. — On  the  roots  of  the  corn  in  our  germina- 
tion test  box,  we  saw  great  numbers  of  fine  root-hairs. 
These  are  the  principal  feeding  organs  of  the  plant. 
They  have  the  power  to  transfer  the  water  and  the 
plant  food  from  the  soil  to  the  rootlets.  If  water  does 
not  exist  as  capillary  water  in  the  soil,  the  root-hairs 
are  unable  to  do  their  work. 

Purpose  of  roots. — The  root  system  in  all  its  mod- 
ifications serves  three  purposes  to  the  plant: 

(1)  It  absorbs  and  conducts  water  and  plant  food 
dissolved  in  the  water. 


FIG.  81.     ROOT  SYSTEMS  OP  PLANTS 

(2)  It  reaches  long  distances  in  the  ground  and  thus 
holds  the  plant  firmly  in  its  place. 

(3)  It  furnishes  a  storehouse  for  much  food  material, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  radishes,  beets,  and  turnips. 

Practical  Exercises 
1.     A  Study  of  Eoots 

Dig  up  a  clover  plant  and  remove  the  soil  from  it. 
Observe  that  it  has  a  strong  central  root  which  joins 
the  stem.  Make  a  drawing  of  the  clover  root  system. 

Dig  up  a  single  timothy  plant  with  as  many  of  its 


ROOT    SYSTEM    OF    PLANT 


207 


roots  as  possible,  and  remove  the  soil  from  them.  Ob- 
serve the  many  similar  roots  projecting  from  the  stem. 
Make  a  drawing  of  the  root  system  of  the  timothy. 

Examine  the  beet,  turnip,  or  carrot.  Observe  that 
these  vegetables  are  a  thickened  or  fleshy  tap-root,  and 
contain  large  quantities  of  stored  food  material.  Make 
a  drawing  of  this  type  of  root. 

Make  a  list  of  the  common  plants  of  the  farm,  and 
classify  them  as  to  the  character  of  their  root  system 
under  the  following  divisions: 


Slender  tap-roots. 

Fleshy  tap-roots. 

Fibrous  roots. 

2.     The  Root  System  of  the  Corn  Plant 

Carefully  remove  as  much  of  the  entire  root  system 
of  a  growing  corn  plant  as  possible.  Wash  all  the  soil 
away  from  the  roots.  Remove  and  measure  each  root 
separately,  and  find  the  total  length  of  the  whole  root 
system. 

Place  a  corn  seedling  with  its  root  system  in  a  glass 
of  water,  which  has  been  colored  with  red  ink.  Note 
the  rise  of  the  colored  liquid  into  the  stem  and  leaves. 
Explain. 


•>0,S  LESSONS    IN    AGRICULTURE 

LESSON  LXIT 

CLOVER  AND   OTHER  LEGUMES 

On  some  mild  day  in  March,  when  the  wind  is  not 
blowing  and  the  ground  is  thawing,  we  shall  sow  clover 
seed  in  our  wheat  field,  number  2,  on  the  farm.  It  will 
require  about  one  bushel  of  seed  to  sow  the  ten  acres, 
and  our  seed  will  cost  about  $7  or  $8.  We  must  charge 
this  to  our  expense  account  to  be  balanced  up  with 
profits  later. 

Restoring  nitrogen  to  the  soil. — Nitrogen  is  the 
element  which  under  ordinary  conditions  of  fanning 
is  likely  to  be  soonest  exhausted.  The  farmer's  atten- 
tion must  early  be  turned  to  methods  of  restoring  nitro- 
gen to  his  soil.  Of  course  the  best  method  of  restoring 
all  elements  of  fertility  to  the  soil  is  by  the  use  of  barn- 
yard manure,  but  it  is  not  always  possible  to  do  this. 
There  is  a  class  of  plants,  however,  called  legumes,  that 
have  the  power  of  adding  nitrogen  to  the  soil.  Peas, 
beans,  clovers,  alfalfa,  etc.,  belong  to  this  class.  It  is 
the  purpose  of  this  lesson  to  discover  how  these  plants 
add  nitrogen  to  the  soil. 

Nitrogen  in  the  air. — Air  is  composed  largely  of  two 
gases,  nitrogen  and  oxygen.  About  one-fifth  of  the  air 
is  oxygen  and  the  other  four-fifths  is  nitrogen.  It  is 
the  oxygen  that  causes  iron  to  rust,  coal  to  burn,  or 
wood  to  decay.  On  the  other  hand,  nitrogen  does  not 
combine  readily  with  other  substances.  It  dilutes  the 
oxygen  of  the  air  by  being  mixed  with  it,  and  prevents 
the  oxygen  from  burning  up  everything  in  the  world, 


CLOVER   AND    OTHER   LEGUMES 


209 


and  thus  makes  the  air  fit  for  animals  to  breathe.    Farm 
crops  cannot  use  this  "free"  nitrogen  that  is  in  the  air. 

Nitrogen  -  gathering  bacteria.  —  Little  plant  -  like 
germs,  called  bacteria,  live  in  the  soil,  and  these  feed 
upon  this  free  nitrogen  in  the  air.  These  germs  fasten 
themselves  to  the  roots  of  the  legumes,  such  as  clover 
and  cowpeas,  and  build 
little  colonies  that  are 
t-alled  tubercles.  These 
tubercles  are  about  as 
large  as  pinheads,  and' 
may  easily  be  seen  on 
the  roots  of  clover, 
beans,  and  peas.  The 
interesting  thing  about 
these  germs  is  that  they 
do  not  seem  to  grow 
without  the  clover,  and 
the  clover  does  not 
thrive  without  the 
germs.  In  most  soils 
the  germs  will  find  the 
clover,  but  occasionally  soils  from  old  clover  fields  have 
to  be  sprinkled  over  the  new  clover  fields  in  order  for 
the  young  clover  to  "catch." 

These  germs  found  in  the  tubercles  on  the  roots  of 
legumes,  in  feeding  upon  the  nitrogen  of  the  air,  store 
large  quantities  of  the  nitrogen  in  the  plant  and  in  the 
soil  about  the  plant.  If  this  crop  is  plowed  under, 
additional  nitrogen  is  added  to  the  soil,  and 


FIG.  59.  TUBERCLES  ON  THE  ROOTS 
OF  SOY  BEANS 


','10 


LESSONS    IX    AGRICULTURE 


the  physical  properties  of  the  soil  are  also  im- 
proved 1»\  the  humus  which  the  clover  affords.  This  is 
Hit1  secret  of  clover-growing  on  the  farm.  Crimson 
clover,  cowpeas,  soy  beans,  and  vetch  will  serve  the  same 
purpose  to  the  farmer  as  the  red  clover,  and  each  farmer 
must  learn  which  of  these  legumes  are  best  suited  to  his 
locality. 


PIG.  60.     LEAVES  OF  LEGUMES 

Practical  Exercises 

1.     Observational  Studies  of  the  Legumes 

Find  in  the  fields  and  bring  to  the  school  for  study 

the  following  legumes,  or  as  many  of  them  as  possible : 

Clovers,  cowpeas,  vetch,  beans,  alfalfa,  black  locust,  etc. 

Be  sure  that  you  find  roots  of  clover  showing  the  tuber- 


CLOVER  AND  OTHER  LEGUMES  211 

cles  or  nodules  on  them.  The  following  outline  for  study 
is  suggested.  (Make  all  records  of  your  observation  and 
your  drawings  in  your  notebook)  : 

1.  Observe  the  number,  size,  shape,  and  arrangement 
of  the  leaves.     Make  a  drawing  of  each  kind  of  legume 
leaf  you  have. 

2.  Observe  the  number  and  length  of  the  stems  from 
a  common  root.    Are  the  stems  erect,  spreading,  trailing, 
or  twining  ? 

3.  Are  there  many,  few,  or  no  branches? 

4.  If  in  bloom  notice  the  place,  size,  form,  and  color 
of  the  blossom.    Make  a  drawing  of  the  blossom  of  each 
legume. 

5.  If  in  seed,  note  the  kind,  number,  and  shape  of 
the  seed  pods.     Note  the  number  of  seeds  in  the  pods, 
and  the  size  and  form  of  a  single  seed.     Draw  a  seed 
pod,  and  an  enlarged  sketch  of  a  single  seed. 

6.  Observe  the  form,  size,  number,  and  length  of  the 
roots.    Look  closely  for  nodules  on  the  roots.     Make  a 
drawing  of  the  roots  of  one  legume. 

2.     Sowing  Legumes 

Write  a  paragraph  describing  the  methods  of  sowing 
clover  seed,  alfalfa,  cowpeas,  or  any  other  legume  which 
you  have  seen  sown  at  home  or  in  the  neighborhood. 

Problems 
(See  page  148.) 

1.  How  does  clover  compare  with  other  kinds  of  hay 
in  the  amount  of  nitrogen  it  contains  ?  Phosphoric  acid  ? 
Potash  ? 


212  LESSONS    IN    AGRICULTURE 

2.  If  two- tons  of  hay  per  acre  is  an  average  yield, 
how  much  of  each  fertilizer  is  removed  yearly  with  the 
crop  from  eight  acres  of  ground? 

3.  Which  kind  of  hay  makes  the  richest  manure? 
Why? 

4.  How  much  more  of  nitrogen  in  a  crop  of  twenty- 
five  acres  of  clover  hay,  yielding  three  tons  per  acre, 
than  in  the  same  number  of  acres  of  mixed  hay  yielding 
two  tons  per  acre  ?    Where  does  this  extra  nitrogen  come 
from? 

5.  How  many  tons  of  each  kind  of  hay  did  you 
raise  on  the  farm  last  year? 

6.  How  many  tons  of  hay  did  you  sell  last  year? 
How  many  pounds  of  each  of  the  three  important  kinds 
of  "soil  fertility"  did  you  sell?     How  many  pounds 
altogether  ? 

Free  Bulletins,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture 

No.    89. — Cowpeas. 

No.  194.— Alfalfa  Seed. 

No.  214. — Beneficial  Bacteria  for  Leguminous  Crops. 

No.  215.— Alfalfa  Growing. 

LESSON  LXIII 

CROP  ROTATION 

Necessity  for  crop  rotation. — The  sowing  of  clover 
seed  on  our  wheat  ground  and  the  spring  planning  for 
corn,  suggests  the  subject  of  crop  rotation.  If  we  are 
to  farm  wisely  and  be  prosperous,  we  must  study  and 
practice  crop  rotation.  The  farmer  tries  to  raise  those 
crops  which  will  give  him  the  largest  returns  in  money, 


CROP    ROTATION  • 213 

but  in  doing  this  he  often  loses  sight  of  the  future.  He 
may  reason  thus:  "If  corn  is  a  high  price  and  my 
soil  will  raise  good  corn,  then  corn  is  the  crop  for  me 
to  raise."  So  year  after  year  he  raises  corn  on  the 
same  fields  until  he  finds  that  his  soil  will  not  raise  a 
good  crop  of  corn.  The  cause  is  not  far  to  seek.  Corn 
requires  the  same  kind  of  plant  food  year  after  year, 
and  unless  this  food  is  restored  in  some  way,  the  soil 
becomes  exhausted  of  some  of  its  fertility.  So  the  farmer 
needs  to  consider,  not  only  the  returns  he  will  get  from 
his  crop  this  year,  but  the  effect  that  the  crop  will  have 
upon  the  soil. 

Cover  crops. — On  all  sloping  lands,  if  neglected,  the 
soil  may  wash  into  gullies,  and  in  a  few  years  a  fer- 
tile field  may  be  completely  ruined.  Such  lands  should 
i)e  kept  in  grass  as  much  as  possible,  and  when  such 
lands  are  cropped,  the  rows  should  run  lengthwise  the 
hill  and  not  up  and  down  the  slope,  thus  checking  the 
tendency  to  wash.  One  of  the  best  means  of  preventing 
washing  of  the  soil  is  to  plant  a  crop  in  the  fall  that 
will  cover  the  ground  thickly  before  freezing  weather, 
and  thus  not  only  hold  the  soil,  but  prevent  its  being 
packed  by  the  rain.  Such  crops  are  called  cover  crops. 
Rye  or  the  clovers  are  especially  used  for  this  purpose. 

A  system  of  crop  rotation. — Crop  rotation  consists 
in  growing  one  kind  of  crop  on  the  ground  this  year, 
another  kind  of  crop  requiring  different  plant  foods  the 
next  year,  still  another  the  year  following,  and  so  on, 
the  crops  following  each  other  in  succession,  and  at  regu- 
lar intervals.  For  example,  our  field  number  2  (see 


214  LESSONS    IN    AGRICULTURE 

map  of  the  farm)  at  present  in  wheat  will  be  sown  to 
clover  this  spring.  After  the  wheat  is  cut  in  July,  the 
clover  will  be  allowed  to  grow  all  summer  and  fall,  and 
to  go  into  the  winter  as  a  cover  crop,  with  all  the  ad- 
vantages mentioned  above.  Next  spring  the  clover 
will  be  allowed  to  grow  into  blossom,  and  will  then  be 
cut  for  hay.  A  second  crop  of  the  clover  will  spring 
up,  and  we  allow  this  to  go  to  seed  and  to  be  thrashed 
out  in  September,  or  to  go  into  the  winter  as  a  cover 
crop  again.  The  following  spring  we  shall  plow  under 
the  clover,  and  plant  our  field  to  corn.  The  following 
September  we  may  sow  the  field  to  wheat,  and  the  next 
spring  return  to  clover  again.  This  system  of  rota- 
tion is  well  suited  to  the  central  states.  Of  course,  there 
may  be  special  reasons  for  modifying  it,  and  other 
methods  of  rotation  equally  good  will  occur  to  the 
thoughtful  farmer. 

Results  of  rotation. — During  this  rotation  period  a 
cover  crop  has  been  plowed  under,  and  a  sod  of  clover 
two  years  old  has  been  turned  into  the  soil.  The  clover 
has  added  to  the  food  supply  for  the  two  grain  crops, 
and  has  improved  the  texture  of  the  soil  by  the  humus 
it  will  produce,  besides  it  has  furnished  pasture,  hay, 
cover  crop,  and  seed  in  the  meantime.  If  the  clover 
sod  be  treated  with  lime  and  phosphoric  acid,  just  be- 
fore it  is  turned  under  for  the  corn  crop,  the  yield  of 
the  corn  will  be  greatly  increased,  and  the  wheat  fol- 
lowing the  corn  in  the  rotation,  will  be  favorably  affected 
by  the  additional  fertilizer. 


CROP    ROTATION 


215 


Practical  Exercises 
1.     Systems  of  Crop  Rotations 

Copy  the  two  following  systems  of  crop  rotation  in 
your  notebook  and  memorize  them : 


(a)  Sow  clover  seed  in  the  wheat  in  March  or  April. 

(b)  Harvest  the  wheat  as  usual,  and  allow  the  clover 
to  remain  as  a  cover  crop  for  the  winter. 

(c)  Plow  up  the  clover  sod  the  following  April. 

(d)  Plant  to  corn. 

(e)  Sow  wheat  in  the  corn  in  September. 

(f )  Sow  clover  seed  in  the  wheat  again  in  March. 


II 

If  the  land  is  much  reduced  or  of  a  poor  soil,  the 
rotation  begins  and  proceeds  as  in  (I)  above,  except 
at  (c),  instead  of  plowing  up  the  clover  for  corn  in  the 
spring,  allow  it  to  stand  another  season.  A  hay  crop 
may  then  be  harvested  in  June  or  July,  and  a  seed  crop 
in  the  following  September,  after  which  proceed  as 
in  (I). 

Tabulate  the  following  in  your  notebook : 

Rotation  of  Crops 


Series  a. 

Series  b. 

Series  c. 

Series  d. 

Values   of    Rotation. 

Clover 
Corn 
Wheat 
Clover 

Clover 
Hay  and 
seed 
Corn 
Wheat 
Clover 

Clover 
Corn 
Oats 
Wheat 
Clover 

Clover 
Corn 
Potato 
Wheat. 
Clover. 

Preserves    food    supply. 
Increases   food   supply. 
Eradicates   weeds. 
Exterminates   insects. 
Enlarges    the   resourceg. 

216  LESSONS    IN    AUKK  ULTUBE 

2.    Crop  Rotations  on  the  Home  Farm 
Describe  the  system  of  crop  rotation  used  on  your 

father's  farm.     Give  in  detail  each  step  as  the  outline 

suggests  above. 

Compare  the  system  used  at  your  home  with  those 

described  by  the  other  members  of  the  class.     Criticize 

and  discuss  the  various  methods. 

Free  Bulletins,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture 
No.  289. — Practices  in  Crop  Rotation. 
No.  320.— Relation  of  Sugar  Beets  to  General  Farming. 

Problems 

1.  If  corn  is  planted  in  rows  four  feet  apart  each 
way,  how  many  hills  to  the  acre  ?    With  three  good  ears 
to  the  hill,  how  many  ears  to  the  acre? 

2.  If  it  takes  100  ears  to  make  a  bushel,  how  many 
bushels  to  the  acre  ? 

3.  Which  is  the  better  crop?  Five  stalks  to  the  hill 
that  bear  ears  requiring  200  to  make  a  bushel,  or  three 
stalks  to  the  hill  that  bear  ears  requiring  100  to  make 
a  bushel  ? 

4.  How  many  bushels  per  acre  is  one  crop  better 
than  the  other  ? 

5.  Suppose  a  ten-acre  field  produces  sixty  bushels 
of  corn  per  acre  the  first  year,  but  falls  off  five  bushels 
per  acre  yearly  when  corn  is  continually  grown  on  it, 
what  will  be  the  yield  the  fourth  year? 

6.  What  will  be  the  total  loss  in  the  four  years? 
With  corn  worth  30  cents  per  bushel,  what  is  the  money 
loss? 

7.  Suppose  this  loss  can  be  avoided  by  rotation  of 


SPRAYING  FOR  SCALES  217 

crops.     What  is  saved  yearly,  per  acre,  on  this  basis 
from  rotation  of  crops? 

8.  What  is  the  vaiue  of  one  acre  of  tobacco,  1,500 
pounds,  at  8  cents  per  pound  ? 

9.  What  is  the  value  of  one  acre  of  oats,  sixty  bush- 
els, at  30  cents  per  bushel? 

10.  What  is  the  value  of  one  acre  of  clover,  three 
tons,  at  $6  per  ton? 

11.  What   is  the   value   of  one  acre  of  corn,   fifty 
bushels,  at  40  cents  per  bushel? 

12.  What  is  the  value  of  one  acre  of  peas,  twenty 
bushels,  at  $1.50  per  bushel? 


LESSON  LXIV 

SPRAYING  FOR  SCALES 

During  this  month  we  must  spray  our  peach  and  apple 
trees  to  rid  them  of  San  Jose  and  other  scale  insects, 
or  to  insure  against  them  should  there  be  none  present. 
The  reason  for  doing  this  work  in  March  is  because 
the  insecticides  we  must  use  against  the  scale  would  be 
injurious  to  the  foliage  of  the  trees. 

San  Jose  scale. — The  San  Jose  scale  is  one  of  the 
most  dreaded  enemies  of  the  fruit  trees.  In  most  states 
it  is  an  illegal  act  to  sell  fruit  trees  infested  with  it. 
This  insect  is  very  minute,  yet  it  spreads  rapidly  and 
soon  covers  the  branches  of  the  trees  with  a  grayish 
scale,  beneath  which  is  the  living  pest,  sucking  the  life 
from  the  tree.  Probably  the  best  thing  to  do  when  one 


Vis  LESSONS    IN    AGRICULTURE 

linds  that  the  scale  has  almost  completely  covered  his 
fruit  trees,  is  promptly  to  cut  down  and  burn  the  trees 
that  are  in  a  dying  condition.  If  taken  in  time  there 
are  several  insecticides  that  may  be  successfully  used. 
There  are  a  number  of  reliable  firms  that  put  up  ready 


Ci,iirtc*y  of  W.  E.  Rum«rj/ 

Fio.  61.     A.  OYSTER  SHELL  SCALE.     B.  SCURFY   SCALE,     c.   SAN  JOSE 

SCALE 

mixed  preparations,  such  as  the  lime-sulphur  solutions, 
whale-oil  soaps,  and  the  miscible  oils,  and  where  only  a 
few  trees  are  to  be  sprayed,  it  is  best  to  buy  the  ready- 
made  mixtures.  Full  and  easily  followed  directions  for 
use  accompany  the  materials. 


SPRAYING    FOR   SCALES  219 

Lime-sulphur. — If  one  wishes  to  prepare  his  own 
spray  material,  the  best  insecticide  for  scale  when  the 
plant  is  in  the  dormant  season  is  the  lime-sulphur  wash, 
prepared  as  follows : 

Lime 8  pounds. 

Sulphur   16  pounds. 

Water  10  gallons. 

Boil  together  for  about  forty  minutes,  then  dilute  one 
gallon  of  the  mixture  with  ten  of  water.  The  solution 
is  now  ready  for  the  spray  pump. 

Practical  Exercises 
1.    Spraying  for  Scale 

It  may  not  seem  possible  for  the  school  to  do  the  prac- 
tical work  suggested  in  this  exercise,  but  every  effort 
should  be  made  to  make  it  possible. 

If  any  farmer  in  the  neighborhood  has  a  spray  pump, 
ask  him  to  loan  it  for  use  at  the  school.  He  may  have 
a  gallon  of  ready-mixed  lime-sulphur  solution  which  he 
would  let  you  have.  Dilute  the  gallon  to  about  ten  or 
twelve  gallons  with  water,  place  in  the  spray  pump,  and 
spray  a  few  trees  in  the  vicinity  of  the  school.  Make  a 
notebook  record  of  this  lesson. 

2.    Spraying  House-plants  against  Lice 
The  following  mixture  is  often  used   for  scale  and 
plant  lice  when  the  foliage  is  on  the  trees,  or  it  may 
be  used  to  rid  house  plants  of  the  plant  lice  or  scale : 

Hard  soap 1  oz. 

Water    1  pt. 

Kerosene  2  pts. 


220  LESSONS    IN    AGRICULTURE 

Shave  the  soap  into  the  water  and  heat  almost  to 
boiling.  Remove  the  soap  solution  from  the  fire,  and 
add  the  kerosene.  Stir  the  mixture  into  a  creamy  con- 
sistency. Now  dilute  this  mixture  with  two  gallons  of 
water,  and  it  is  ready  to  apply  to  the  foliage.  This 
mixture  is  called  kerosene  emulsion. 

Both  the  lime-sulphur  and  the  kerosene  emulsion  de- 
stroy the  sucking  insects  by  corroding  their  bodies  and 
stopping  up  their  breathing  pores. 

Problems 

1.  Fifty  gallons  of  properly  diluted  lime-sulphur  so- 
lution will  spray  about  twenty  young  fruit  trees.     The 
material   for  a  fifty-gallon  barrel  will  cost  about  $1. 
How  much  will  it  cost  to  spray  100  trees? 

2.  What  are  the  proportions  necessary  to  make  up  a 
barrel  of  kerosene  emulsion,  using  the  same  as  suggested 
in  the  second  exercise  given  above? 

3.  How  much  will  it  cost  to  spray  the  five  acres 
of  orchard  on  our  forty-acre  farm,  counting  one  acre 
in  peach  trees  and   four  acres  in   apple  trees?     The 
apple  trees  are  ten  years  old,  and  the  peach  trees  seven 
years  old.    Determine  the  number  of  trees  of  each  that 
should  occupy  the  ground. 

Reference:     Farmers'  Bulletin,  No.  127. 


PRUNING   FRUIT   TREES  .  221 

LESSON  LXV 
PRUNING  FRUIT  TREES 

Time  to  prune. — Before  the  buds  of  the  trees  begin 
to  swell  and  the  leaves  to  appear  we  must  prune  our 
vines  and  fruit  trees.  Perhaps  there  are  old  trees  that 
should  be  renewed,  young  trees  that  have  dead  or  crowd- 
ed limbs  to  be  removed,  or  mild  prunings  to  be  made 
on  very  young  trees  and  vines.  Proper  pruning  requires 
much  skill  and  study,  and  each  tree  is  a  separate  problem 
in  pruning. 

Reasons  for  pruning. — We  prime  for  the  following 
reasons : 

1.  To  modify  the  vigor  of  the  tree. 

2.  To  produce  larger  and  better  fruit. 

3.  To  keep  the  tree  within  manageable  shape  and 
limits. 

4.  To  remove  superfluous  or  injured  parts. 

5.  To  facilitate  spraying  and  harvesting. 

6.  To  facilitate  tillage. 

7.  To  produce  new  wood  growth. 

Mild  pruning  every  year  tends  to  maintain  the  bal- 
ance of  the  tree,  aids  the  fruit  grower  more  easily  and 
surely  to  shape  the  tree  to  his  ideal,  and  makes  the 
tree  more  fruitful. 

Pruning  young  trees. — In  pruning  very  young  trees, 
that  is,  one-  and  two-year-old  stock  just  set  out,  two 
methods  are  usually  pursued: 

First,  the  method  of  cutting  off  all  the  side  branches 
to  one  or  two  buds,  leaving  a  straight  central  stem  which 


222  LESSONS    IN    AGRICULTURE 

is  headed  back  severely.  This  method  is  used  especially 
in  pruning  young  peach  trees. 

Second,  the  method  of  cutting  away  all  of  the  branches 
but  one  leader  and  three  or  four  main  side  branches, 
cut  back  to  four  or  five  buds,  left  to  furnish  the  bases 
of  the  lower  spreading  limbs.  This  method  is  used  with 
two-year-old  apple  trees  in  starting  the  first  main 
branches. 

It  is  best  to  leave  the  branches  growing  rather  low 
down  on  the  trunk  of  the  young  tree  in  order  to  af- 
ford shade  for  the  trunk  and  ground  beneath,  and  to 
facilitate  the  spraying  and  the  gathering  of  the  fruit. 
Fruit  trees  are  not  grown  for  lumber,  but  for  fruit, 
and  peaches  and  apples  will  not  grow  on  the  trunks  of 
trees. 

Renewing  old  orchards. — It  is  a  fascinating  pleasure 
to  buy  and  set  out  young  trees,  and  to  look  forward 
to  the  time  when  they  will  repay  us  for  the  long  wait 
and  careful  tending.  But  there  is  that  long  interim 
between  the  planting  and  the  harvesting  which  we  must 
expect.  Perhaps  while  we  are  waiting  for  the  young 
trees,  we  are  forgetting  the  old  orchard  that  stands  neg- 
lected, though  still  trying  to  renew  its  life  with  the  com- 
ing of  every  season.  Let  us  turn  to  these  old  trees 
with  the  same  skill  and  labor  that  we  are  bestowing  on 
our  young  trees,  and  they  will  repay  a  hundredfold, 
yielding  us  an  abundance  of  fine  fruit  before  our  young 
trees  have  learned  to  blossom. 

The  tops  of  the  trees  are  old  and  high,  and  from 
their  unexplored  and  unsprayed  heights,  only  a  few 


PRUNING    FEUIT    TREES 


223 


Cut  away  one-third 


wormy  apples  drop  prematurely, 
or  one-half  of  this  top,  and 
the  new  life  of  the  tree  will 
manifest  itself  in  a  vigorous 
growth  of  water  sprouts, 
lower  down  on  the  tree. 
These  should  then  be  cut 
away  the  next  year,  except  a 
few  which  should  be  pruned 
and  left  to  form  new 
branches.  All  cut  surfaces 
should  be  painted  with  white 
or  red  lead  to  prevent  decay. 

The  dead  and  dying 
branches,  which  are  always 
found  in  old  trees,  should 
be  removed,  and  all  such 
branches  should  be  cut  close 
to  the  main  stem  from  which 
they  branch.  The  dead 
branches  are  a  menace  to  the 
rest  of  the  orchard,  for  in 
them  live  and  breed  the  in- 
sect and  fungous  pests. 

Perhaps  in  our  old  trees 
there  are  bad  forks.  These 
should  be  bolted  together. 

Perhaps  there  are  great  rot-     FT«-  62.    YOUNG  APPLE  TREE 
.  .  PROPERLY    PRUNED   FOR 

ten  cavities.   These  should  be  SETTING  OUT 

cleaned  out,  washed  with  copper  sulphate  solution,  and 


224  LESSONS    IX    AGRICULTURE 

lilli'd  with  cement.  The  rough  bark  should  he  scraped 
off,  and  the  trunk  of  the  tree  washed  with  lime  or  soap 
suds.  The  trees  should  then  be  sprayed  for  scale,  as 
suggested  in  the  last  lesson,  and  when  the  blossoms  fall 
next  month,  the  trees  should  be  sprayed  for  codling 
moth,  as  will  be  explained  in  a  later  lesson.  If  the  soil 
in  our  old  orchard  is  poor  and  has  not  been  cultivated 
for  many  years,  a  top-dressing  of  stable  manure  and 
lime  worked  into  the  soil  will  help  to  renew  it,  and  bring 
the  old  trees  into  new  fruitfulness. 

Practical  Exercises 

1.  Pruning  a  Young  Apple  Tree 

Bring  to  the  schoolroom  young  nursery  stock — ap- 
ples and  peach  trees,  one  and  two  years  old.  Select  a 
good  specimen  of  apple  tree  that  has  grown  several 
side  branches  and  a  strong  leader.  Prune  back  the  side 
branches  to  four  or  five  buds,  leaving  an  outside  bud 
just  below  the  cut  surface  on  each  pruned  branch.  Head 
back  the  leader  to  six  or  seven  buds.  The  little  tree 
is  now  ready  to  enter  its  season  of  growth. 

Next  March  the  portion  of  the  tree  left  as  a  leader 
the  year  before  would  have  to  be  pruned  as  the  little 
tree  was  at  first,  and  so  on  until  a  scaffold  of  strong, 
stocky  branches  were  formed  low  down  on  the  trunk  of 
the  tree.  See  figure  62. 

2.  Pruning  an  Old  Apple  Tree 

Go  to  an  old  orchard  where  the  trees  have  been  neg- 
lected and  have  grown  tall  and  unshapely.  First  cut 
out  all  dead  and  dying  branches.  Remove  all  limbs 


PRUNING    FRUIT    TREES 


225 


that  cross  each  other  and  rub  together,  or  that  grow 
toward  the  center  of  the  tree.  Cut  all  the  top  branches 
down  at  least  one-third  or  one-half  of  the  crown  of 
the  tree.  Always  notice  to  cut  a  large  limb  off  just 
above  a  branch  that  is  to  be  left,  in  order  that  the 
leaves  on  this  branch  may  help  to  heal  the  wound.  Cover 
all  wounds  with  paint.  Be  careful  in  sawing  large 
limbs  that  they  do  not  split  down  as  they  fall.  Saw 
an  inch  or  two  into  the  limb  on  the  under  side  and 
back  of  the  cut  which  removes  the  limb.  All  limbs  re- 
moved should  be  cut  close  to  the  main  branches  from 
which  they  are  taken  in  order  that  the  wound  may  heal 
properly.  Experience  has  shown  that  this  is  the 
best  way  to  renew  the  old  trees.  Within  three  years 
after  such  severe  treatment,  if  properly  followed  up 
with  careful  pruning  of  the  water  sprouts,  the  tree 
will  bear  large  quantities  of  fruit  on  a  newly  formed 
tree-top.  (See  cut  below.) 

Reference:     Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  181. 


FIG.  62a.     OLD  APPLE  TREES  PRUNED 


APRIL 

On  the  farm. — During  this  month  we  shall  be  very 
busy  on  the  farm.  There  is  spring  plowing  to  do,  gar- 
den to  make,  trees  and  shrubs  to  plant,  fruit  trees  to 
propagate  and  spray,  and  corn  to  plant. 

LESSON  LXVI 

GRAFTING   FEUIT    TREES 

In  the  early  April  when  the  sap  begins  to  flow  in  the 
fruit  trees,  we  shall  propagate  some  new  varieties  of 
apples  in  the  tops  of  the  older  trees.  By  a  process 
known  as  grafting,  we  can  force  trees  to  produce  dif- 
ferent varieties  of  fruits.  There  are  two  common  meth- 
ods of  grafting — the  tongue  or  whip  graft,  and  the  cleft 
graft. 

Practical  Exercises 

1.     The  Tongue  Graft 

If  the  class  cannot  go  to  an  orchard  for  this  lesson, 
bring  several  branches  of  apple  tree  into  the  school- 
room. Choose  a  stock  upon  which  you  intend  to  graft 
the  desired  variety.  Then  select  from  the  variety  de- 
sired a  twig  that  is  about  the  thickness  of  the  young 
tree  at  the  point  where  you  wish  to  graft.  Be  careful 
to  select  the  shoot  or  scion  from  a  healthy  part  of  the 
tree.  Cut  the  scion  and  stock  as  you  would  the  mouth 
parts  of  a  boy's  whistle,  then  make  a  vertical  slit  across 
the  cut  surface.  Join  the  cut  end  of  the  scion  to  the 

226 


GRAFTING  FEUIT  TREKS 


cut  end  of  the  stock  and  wrap  with  raffia  or  waxed 
cord.  When  you  join  them,  notice  that  under  the  bark 
of  each  is  a  thin  layer  of  soft,  juicy  tissue.  This  is 
called  the  cambium.  To  make  a  successful  graft,  the 


FIG.  63.     WHIP  GRAFTING 
a,    Scion ;   b,   stock ;    c,    united ;    d,    tied. 

cambium  in  the  scion  must  exactly  join  the  cambium  in 
the  stock. 

g.     The  Cleft  Graft 

For  the  grafting  of  larger  scions  or  for  the  grafting 
of  scions  of  various  kinds  of  apple  trees  upon  the 
branches  of  one  stock,  the  cleft  graft  method  is  used. 


288 


LESSONS    IX    AGRICULTURE 


The  stock  is  cut  square  across,  and  the  scions,  either 
one  or  two,  are  cut  into  wedges  at  the  end,  and  slipped 
into  a  cleft  of  the  stock.  The  cambium  of  the  scions 
must  come  in  contact  with  the  cambium  of  the  stock, 
as  in  the  former  method.  After  the  scions  are  forced 


FIG.  64.  ,  CLEFT  GRAFTING 
Prepared   scion ;    b,    scions   in    place ; 
c,   graft   waxed   over. 

into  the  cleft  of  the  stock,  the  whole  exposed  surface, 
and  the  cleft  left  open,  should  be  covered  with  the  graft 
ing  wax.  (See  figure.)  ( 1  part  tallow,  2  parts  beeswax, 
and  4  parts  resin. ) 

Trees  may  be  budded  or  grafted  upon  one  another 
only  when  they  are  nearly  related.  There  are  some  rare 
exceptions  to  this  rule. 

Have  pupils  write  a  description  of  these  methods  and 
make  drawings  of  the  grafts.  Each  pupil  in  the  class 
should' make  these  grafts  for  himself,  and  if  possible, 
the  work  should  be  done  in  the  orchard. 

References:     Farmers'  Bulletins,  Nos.  113,  161,  154,  and  157. 


PROPAGATION    FROM    CUTTINGS 

LESSON  LXVII 


229 


PLANT  PROPAGATION  FROM  CUTTINGS 

Purposes  of  plant  propagation. — The  purpose  of  all 
plant  propagation  is  to  obtain  more  individual  plants 
or  newer  strains  of  plants;  to  perpetuate  a  particular 
variety;  or  to  renew  the  generation  and  keep  the  stock 
from  dying  out.  Most  farm  crops  and  garden  vege- 


FIG.    65. 


STEM    CUTTING,   OR    SLIP,    OF 
COLE us 


tables  reproduce  the  varieties  wanted  from  seeds;  but 
most  fruit  trees  and  shrubs  do  not,  and  in  such  cases 
the  plants  have  to  be  reproduced  by  buds,  grafts,  layers, 
or  cuttings.  AVe  have  already  learned  how  plants  propa- 
gate by  seeds,  and  how  fruit  trees  may  be  made  over 
to  the  desired  varieties  by  grafting.  There  remains  an- 
other common  method  of  plant  propagation  to  study, 
known  as  cuttings.  Cuttings  may  be  made  from  soft  or 


230  LESSONS   IN   AGRICULTURE 

unripe  wood,  or  from  hard  and  fully  matured  wood. 
Of  the  soft  kinds  are  cuttings  (or  slips)  of  geraniums, 
fuchsias,  and  the  like.  Of  the  hard  kinds  are  cuttings 
of  grapes  and  currants. 

Soft  cuttings. — Soft  cuttings  are  made  of  shoots 
which  are  sufficiently  mature  to  snap  when  bent  double. 
They  are  composed  of  from  one  to  three  joints  of  the 
plant.  The  leaves  of  cuttings  are  removed  from  the 


FIG.   66.     LEAF  CUTTING — WHOLE   LEAF 

lower  end,  and  if  the  upper  leaves  are  large,  they  should 
be  cut  in  two  to  prevent  too  rapid  drying  out.  Sandy 
soil  free  from  vegetable  matter  is  best  for  soft  cuttings. 

Hardwood  cuttings. — Hardwood  cuttings  are  usually 
taken  in  the  fall  or  winter.  They  are  composed  of  two 
or  more  buds.  If  these  cuttings  are  taken  in  the  fall, 
they  are  buried  in  sand  to  be  kept  until  spring,  when 
they  are  set  in  the  ground  up  to  the  top  bud.  However, 
such  cuttings  may  be  taken  and  placed  during  this 
month. 


PROPAGATION    FROM    CUTTINGS 


231 


Practical  Exercises 
1.    Soft  Cuttings 

Provide  a  neat  painted  window-box;  fill  it  with  moist 
sand  and  keep  in  a  warm  place.  Bring  stem  cuttings 
of  geraniums,  coleuses,  fuchsias,  begonias,  or  other  house 
plants,  which  may  be  obtained  from  home,  insert  the 
slips  into  the  moist  sand,  and  firm  the  sand  well  about 
the  cuttings.  Remove  all  but  two  or  three  of  the  leaves. 
Keep  the  sand  warm  and  moist,  and  watch  the  growth 
from  day  to  day. 


GRAPEVINE  WELL  THELLISED 


The  leaves  of  the  Rex  begonia  and  wax  plant  may 
be  propagated  by  inserting  the  edge  of  the  leaf  or 
even  a  piece  of  the  leaf  in  sand  and  supplying  it  with 
plenty  of  moisture  and  warmth.  A  leaf  may  be  laid 
flat,  right  side  up,  on  the  surface  of  the  sand  and  fas- 
tened down  at  intervals  by  splinters  through  the  veins. 
Plants  will  spring  up  at  the  bottom  edges  of  the  leaf  or 
at  cut  places  in  the  veins. 

2.    Hardwood  Cuttings 

Select  a  dozen  or  more  freshly  made  cuttings  of  grape 
vines,  taken  from  the  previous  year's  growth.  The  cut- 
tings should  consist  of  three  or  four  buds.  Spade  up 
and  thoroughly  pulverize  the  soil  in  some  warm  rich 


232  LESSONS    IN    AGRICULTURE 

corner  of  the  school  grounds,  making  a  plot  about  three 
feet  square.  Insert  the  grape  cuttings  in  a  slanting 
position  in  the  fine,  loose  soil,  leaving  one  bud  exposed. 
Press  the  soil  very  firmly  about  the  cuttings,  and  cover 
the  plot  with  a  mulch  of  hay  or  grass,  except  the  ex- 
posed buds  of  the  cuttings.  If  the  plot  could  be  kept 
well  watered  all  summer,  and  free  from  weeds,  a  fine 
lot  of  new  grape  plants  would  grow,  ready  to  be  set 
permanently  the  next  spring. 

Poplar  and  willow  trees  may  easily  be  propagated 
from  hardwood  cuttings. 

References:     Farmers'  Bulletins,  Nos.  157  and  218. 

LESSON  LXVIII 

PEOPAGATION  OF  KASPBEEEIES 

Layering. — The  black  raspberry  illustrates  a  method 
of  plant  propagation,  known  as  layering.  A  layer  is  a 
shoot  or  root,  which  while  still  attached  to  the  plant, 
is  made  to  take  root  with  the  intention  that  it  shall  be 
severed  and  form  an  independent  plant.  In  the  case  of 
the  black  raspberry,  the  tip  of  the  stem  or  the  whole 
stem  is  bent  to  the  ground  and  covered  with  earth.  At 
the  tip  or  the  joints,  as  the  case  may  be,  roots  are  emit- 
ted. The  layers  are  usually  allowed  to  remain  one  sea- 
son before  they  are  severed  and  set  out  as  new  plants. 
Almost  any  plant  having  shoots  which  can  be  bent  to 
the  ground  can  be  propagated  by  layers;  but  the  best 
result  in  layering  is  obtained  in  plants  which  have 
rather  soft  wood. 


.PROPAGATION    OF    RASPBERRIES  233 

Practical  Exercises 
1.     Field  Practice  in  Layering 

Go  to  some  neighboring  garden  or  berry  patch  and 
find  black  raspberry  plants  that  have  bent  over  during 
the  previous  summer  and  taken  root  at  the  tips.  Pull 
up  one  of  the  tips  and  note  the  beginning  of  a  new 
root  system.  See  if  you  can  find  where  a  new  stem  has 
already  begun  to  grow  from  a  tip  layer.  Cut  off  the 
stem  that  has  bent  over,  about  six  or  eight  inches  above 
where  the  tip  has  rooted.  Dig  up  the  roots  at  the  tip, 


FIG.  68.     RASPBERRY   LAYERING 

and  you  have  a  little  raspberry  plant  that  is  ready  to 
be  transplanted.  Make  some  tip  layers  by  bending 
down  other  stems  and  covering  the  tips  with  earth. 
To  prune  the  raspberry  vines,  cut  away  the  last  year's 
bearing  canes.  Cut  back  the  present  year's  growth  to 
about  three  feet  during  the  month  of  July. 

Notice  that  the  red  raspberry  does  not  bend  over  and 
root  at  the  tip  as  the  black  raspberry  does,  but  that 
new  stalks  spring  up  at  intervals  from  the  root  under- 


v;u  LESSONS  i.\  A<;KI<  ULTUKE 

ground.  The  red  raspberry  thus  spreads  rapidly  and  if 
left  to  itself  will  spend  its  energy  in  growing  canes 
rather  than  producing  berries.  This  can  be  prevented 
by  cutting  off  all  the  new  shoots  but  two  or  three  for 
the  next  year's  growth. 

Make  a  notebook  record  of  all  these  observations,  and 
write  a  paragraph  describing  the  difference  between  the 
methods  of  propagation  of  the  black  and  red  raspberries. 

LESSON  LXIX 

SCHOOL   GARDENING 

Awakened  interest  in  school  gardens. — It  may  be  of 
interest  to  the  boys  and  girls  who  read  this  lesson  to 
learn  something  about  the  value,  the  development,  and 
the  nature  of  school  garden  work  in  this  country.  It 
has  been  a  common  practice  in  several  European  coun- 
tries for  fully  a  century  to  conduct  gardens  in  con- 
nection with  the  work  of  the  public  schools,  and  the  idea 
of  making  gardening  a  part  of  the  school  work  is  rapidly 
growing  in  favor  in  our  own  country. 

In  gardening,  two  practical  lessons  in  agriculture  arc 
taught  first  hand  :  first,  the  thorough  preparation  of  the 
seed  bed;  and,  second,  the  results  of  good  cultivation 
in  providing  the  surface  mulch  and  in  killing  the  weeds. 

Essentials  of  gardening. — The  ground  for  the  garden 
should  be  of  a  warm,  rich,  sandy  loam,  and  be  well 
under-drained.  In  preparing  the  ground  for  planting, 
great  care  and  patience  should  be  exercised  in  enriching 
it  and  thoroughly  pulverizing  the  top  soil.  The  seeds 


SCHOOL   GARDENING 


235 


should  be  pure  and  healthy,  and  not  planted  too  deep, 
and  the  surface  of  the  soil  should  not  be  allowed  to 
become  too  dry  while  the  seeds  are  germinating.  These 
are  fundamental  requirements  in  all  gardening. 

Practical  Exercises 

1.    Selecting  and  Preparing  the  Garden 

The  size  and  shape  of  the  school  garden  will,  of  course, 

depend  upon  the  amount  of  land  available.    The  school 

garden  should  not  encroach  upon  the  playgrounds.     If 

the  school  lot  is  too  small,  perhaps  a  farmer  whose  land 


FIG.  69.     SCHOOL  GARDEN 

adjoins  would  be  willing  to  give  or  rent  a  plot  for 
school  garden  purposes.  If  the  teacher  and  pupils  are 
willing  to  have  a  school  garden,  there  need  be  no  trouble 
to  find  land  enough  for  it.  If  the  school  is  in  session 
this  month,  a  school  garden  should  by  all  means  be 
begun. 

If  it  is  not  feasible  to  have  a  large  garden  with  in- 
dividual or  group  plots,  select  a  corner  of  the  school 


236  LESSONS    IN    AORICULTl  Kl 

grounds,  on  which  to  make  a  sample  garden  plot,  as  a 
demonstration  lesson  from  which  the  pupils  may  learn 
how  to  make  similar  garden  plots  at  home.  Select  a 
space  with  rich  soil,  about  four  feet  wide  by  sixteen 
feet  long,  and  thoroughly  clean  away  all  weeds  and 
trash  from  this  plot. 

Spade  up  the  ground  as  deeply  as  possible.  About 
a  pound  of  commercial  fertilizer  may  now  be  sprinkled 
over  the  plot,  or  a  few  shovelfuls  of  well-rotted  manure 
may  be  worked  into  the  ground.  Rake  over  the  plot 
and  break  up  all  the  clods.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  go  over 
the  ground  with  the  hands,  crumbling  the  soil  as  fine  as 
meal.  Level  the  bed  up  slightly  higher  than  the  rest 
of  the  ground.  Stake  the  four  corners  and  mark  off  a 
sharp,  clean-cut  edge  for  the  bed,  and  make  a  neat,  clean 
path  around  it. 

The  garden  is  now  ready  for  planting. 
S.     Planting  the  School  Garden 

In  plenty  of  time  before  this  lesson  is  given  the  teacher 
should  take  a  penny  collection  from  the  pupils,  and  send 
to  the  Home  Gardening  Association,  Cleveland,  Ohio, 
for  seed  packages.  Many  of  the  seeds  may  easily  be 
obtained  at  the  homes  of  the  pupils.  Under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  teacher,  the  garden  plot  prepared  in  the  pre- 
vious exercise  should  be  marked  off  for  planting.  The 
accompanying  diagram  should  be  drawn  on  stiff  card- 
boards by  each  pupil,  before  going  to  the  garden  for 
this  exercise. 

The  plot,  which  is  four  feet  wide,  should  be  cross- 
furrowed,  according  to  the  scale  shown  above.  Make 


SCHOOL    GARDENING 


237 


the  furrows  about  two  inches  deep.  Place  the  seeds  in 
the  furrows,  as  shown  by  the  stars  in  the  diagram.  Cover 
with  the  soil  according  to  the  size  of  the  seeds,  and 
press  it  down  firmly  with  the  hands.  Now  we  are  ready 
for  the  seeds  to  grow.  Each  pupil  should  now  make 


Sweet   corn,   three  rows. 

(Three  grains   in  each  place.) 
Dwarf  bunch  beans,  two  rows. 

Potatoes,  three  hills. 
Cucumbers,  three  hills. 
Optional. 


Optional. 
Optional. 
Beets,  three  rows. 

Dwarf   peas,   two   rows. 
Onion  sets,  two  rows. 
Radishes,   three  rows. 
Lettuce,   three  rows. 
Flower  seeds. 


FIG.  70.     GARDEN  PLOT.     ONE-FOUKTH  INCH  EQUALS  ONE  FOOT 

a  garden  plot  similar  to  this  one,  at  his  home,  and  re- 
port daily  to  the  class  the  progress  of  his  garden.  As 
the  garden  grows,  weeds  must  be  pulled,  insects  watched 
for,  and  replanting  done,  if  necessary. 


238 


KKSSOXS   IN 


The  following  table  should  be  copied  in  the  notebooks 
and  filled  out  in  connection  with  the  exercises  of  this 
lesson : 


Plants 

When 
Planted 

How  Deep 

Distance 
Apart 

When 
Appear 

Injuries 

Free  Bulletins,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture 

Farmers '    Bulletins. 
No.  218.— The  School  Garden. 
Extracts. 

No.  113. — Experimental  Gardens  and  Grounds. 


LESSON  LXX 

HOME  GARDENING 

Importance  of  the  garden. — What  has  been  said 
about  school  gardens  will,  much  of  it,  apply  to  the  home 
garden.  Every  family  in  the  country  should  have  a 
garden  because  of  the  profit  and  satisfaction  which  it 
affords.  The  garden  is,  or  should  be,  the  best  part  of 
the  farm,  but  it  is  often  neglected  by  the  farmer  for 
other  work  which  he  thinks  more  important.  Every 
dweller  in  town  or  city  could  very  materially  lessen 
the  cost  of  living  as  well  as  promote  the  health  of  the 
family,  by  having  a  home  garden.  By  the  use  of  flow- 
ers and  shrubs  in  the  proper  relation  to  the  vegetable 
garden,  the  whole  garden  may  add  much  to  the  beauty 
of  the  home  grounds. 


HOME    GARDENING 


239 


Some  essentials  of  gardening. — 1.  The  soil  of  the 
garden  should  be  a  warm,  well-drained,  sand  loam.  It 
should  be  well  fertilized  with  barn  manure. 

2.  The  ground  should  be  plowed  deeply  and  well, 
so  that  all  litter  and  manure  will  be  turned  under.  The 
ground  should  be  harrowed  and  raked  until  the  top  soil 
is  fine.  All  sticks  and  trash  should  be  removed. 


FIG.  71.     TYPE  OF  HOME  GARDEN 

3.  Seeds  should  be  pure,  fresh  and  viable.     Small 
seeds  should  be  covered  only  slightly  with  finely  pul- 
verized soil.     Larger  seeds  should  be  planted  deeper. 
Full  directions  are  usually  given  on  seed  packages. 

4.  Seeds  should  be  planted  on  a  level  in  rows  far 
enough  apart  to  allow  for  easy  cultivation,  a'nd  not  up 


240  I.KSSOXS    IN    AGRICULTURE 

on  elevated  beds  to  dry  out  more  easily  during  the  hot 
summer  days. 

5.  The  time  of  planting  will  depend  upon  the  nature 
of  the  vegetable.     Onions,  peas,  radishes,  lettuce,  and 
potatoes  may  be  planted  as  early  as  the  ground  can 
be  worked.     Flower  seeds,  beans,  cabbage,  melons,  to- 
matoes, etc.,  should  be  planted  later  when  the  ground  is 
thoroughly  warmed. 

6.  In   transplanting   tomatoes,    cabbages,    etc.,   care 
should  be  taken  that  the  plants  are  set  deep  and  are 
well  shaded  for  a  while  from  the  direct  sun  light.     On 
cloudy  days  or  towards  evening  is  the  best  time  to  do 
transplanting. 

7.  Seed  beds  should  not  be  allowed  to  dry  out  on 
the  surface  during  germination.     After  the  plants  have 
come  through  the  ground,  the  soil  should  be  frequently 
stirred,  to  provide  the  surface  mulch,  and  to  keep  down 
the  weeds.     The  plants  should  be  thinned  out  where 
they  are  overcrowding  each  other. 

8.  All  vegetables  should  be  carefully  watched  as  they 
begin  to  develop  leaves,  to  protect  them  from  the  bugs. 
Professor   Hatch   recommends  the  use   of  Hammond's 
"Slug  Shot,"  sprinkled  dry  on  such  vegetables  as  mel- 
ons, cucumbers,  cabbages,  etc.,  to  kill  the  insect  pests 
appearing  on  these  plants.     The  spray  to  use  on  po- 
tatoes will  be  described  in  a  later  lesson. 

Practical  Exercises 

1.    To  Grow  Early  Melons  or  Cucumbers 

Cut  several  turfs  of  sod,  about  six  inches  square,  as 

many  pieces  as  you  mean  to  have  hills  of  melon.     If 

the  grassy  side  is  firmly   matted,   slightly  loosen  the 

fibers,  but  not  enough  to  allow  the  turf  to  fall  apart. 


HOME    GARDENING  241 

Place  the  sod,  bottom  side  up,  in  a  shallow  box  of  wood 
or  pasteboard;  if  the  earth  is  not  thick  enough,  add 
a  few  handfuls  of  good  mealy  soil.  Plant  about  six 
or  eight  seeds  in  this  soil.  Place  in  a  sunny  window 
and  keep  warm  and  moist. 

This  will  constitute  the  first  part  of  the  lesson,  but 
the  germinating  seeds  will  keep  up  the  interest  in  the 
experiment  for  many  days.  When  the  green  seed  leaves 
have  freed  themselves  from  the  shell,  notice  which  are 
the  thriftiest  plants,  and  remove  all  but  the  best  two. 
Care  for  these  tenderly,  and  they  will  thrive  well,  free 
from  frost  and  the  striped  beetle.  They  may  safely 
acquire  three  or  four  true  leaves,  and  be  five  or  six 
inches  tall,  before  they  are  planted  out  of  doors. 

"When  the  warm  late  May  days  come,  dig  holes  about 
eight  inches  deep  and  six  feet  apart  in  the  sunniest 
part  of  the  garden;  put  in  the  bottom  of  each  hole  a 
spadeful  of  old  well-rotted  manure;  cover  this  with 
two  inches  of  sand  or  fine  soil;  and  on  this  place  the 
sod  with  the  growing  melons,  so  gently  that  they  will 
not  know  they  have  been  moved.  The  sod  should  be 
level  with  the  ground,  and  well  firmed  in  place.  See 
that  the  plants  never  suffer  from  thirst.  Keep  the 
weeds  pulled,  and  stir  the  surface  soil  about  the  hill 
often  until  the  vines  begin  to  run. 

When  each  vine  has  set  about  a  half  dozen  melons, 
pinch  off  all  blossoms  that  form,  and  also  the  tips  of 
the  branches,  so  that  all  plant  food  may  go  into  the 
melons  first  chosen. 


242  LESSONS    IN    AGRICULTURE 

g.    Growing  Cucumbers  Intensively 

Select  a  fertile  spot  and  dig  a  hole  in  the  ground 
large  enough  to  sink  a  barrel  midway.  Knock  the 
bottom  out  of  the  barrel,  and  set  it  in  the  hole  in  the 
ground.  Fill  the  earth  in  about  the  outside  of  the  bar- 
rel, and  mound  the  soil  up  to  the  rim  of  the  barrel 
on  the  outside.  Now  fill  the  barrel  with  manure,  packed 
firmly,  and  keep  it  covered  to  prevent  the  house  flies 
from  breeding  in  it. 

The  bed  is  ready  for  planting.  Plant  five  or  six 
hills  of  cucumber  seeds  in  the  mound  heaped  up  about 
the  outside  of  the  barrel.  Put  about  ten  seeds  in  a 
hill,  and  when  the  plants  get  large  enough  to  vine,  re- 
move half  of  them. 

Pour  several  pails  of  water  into  the  barrel  of  ma- 
nure each  day,  and  the  water  leaching  through  the 
manure  will  furnish  the  best  of  fertilizer  for  the  plants, 
and  the  necessary  moisture  for  their  thrifty  growth. 
These  few  hills  will  furnish  an  abundance  of  cucum- 
bers, and  upon  a  very  small  space  of  ground. 
3.  Cultural  Requirements  for  Vegetables 

Learn  to  fill  out  the  following  table  from  memory, 
when  the  column  of  vegetables  is  given; 


HOME    GARDENING 


243 


The  Vegetable. 

Soil 
Requirement. 

Season 
Requirement. 

Care 
Requirements. 

1     Radish. 

Loose,   deep 
cool,  rich  soil 

Short    season 
crop. 

Clean  cultiva- 
tion. Protect 
from  maggot. 

2.  Beet. 

Sandy  loam 
soli,  loose 
and  rich. 

Full    season. 

Good  tillage. 
Weeds  kept 
down. 

3.  Turnip. 

Cool  moist  soil. 

Short  season. 

No  care  after 
sowing. 

4.  Potato. 

Deeply  Pulver- 
ized, cool 
soil,  rich  in 
potash. 

Early  planting, 
full  season. 

Level        culture, 
frequent       til- 
lage,    spray 
against  beetles. 

5.  Sweet 
potato. 

Loose,  warm 
soil,  sandy 
loam. 

Long   season. 
Sunny. 

Clean  tillage, 
wood  ashes 
fertilizer. 

C    Onion. 

Moist  rich  soil 
with  loose 
surface. 

Cool      season. 
Early       and 
late. 

Good  surface 
tilth.  Good 
seed  needed. 

7.  Cabbage. 

Cool  deep  soil. 

Full    season. 

Frequent        till- 
age.     Destroy 
the   worm. 

8.   Spinach. 

Cool  moist  soil. 

Spring  and   Fall 
crop. 

Grow    in    drills. 

9.   Lettuce. 

Mellow,  moist 
soil. 

Short    season. 

Good  soil  prep- 
aration. 

10.  Celery. 

Cool,  rich, 
moist  soil, 
well  pre- 
pared. 

Full    season. 

The  best  sur- 
face tillage, 
blanching. 

11.   Pea. 

Light   soil. 

Short    season. 

Grown  in  drills. 
Easy  culture. 

12.   Bean. 

Light,  sandy 
loam. 

Warm     season, 
partial. 

Clean  tilth. 
Poles  for  tall 
varieties. 

13.   Tomato. 

Rich,  "quick" 
soil. 

Long,      warm 
season. 

Hill  planting. 
Careful  prun- 
ing and  frame 
supports. 

14.  Cucumbew, 
Melons,    etc. 

Loose,  rich, 
well  prepar- 
ed seedbed. 

Long,      warm 
season. 

Frequent  till- 
age until  vines 
run.  Combat 
melon  beetles. 

15.  Asparagus. 

Deep,  rich, 
moist,  cool 
soil.  Ferti- 
lize often. 

Full      season. 
Perennial. 

Cut  in  fall  and 
top  dress 
with  manure. 
Caase  cutting 
In  early  sum- 
mer. 

244  LESSONS    I\    A<;K!<  ULTURE 

Free  Bulletins,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture 
No.    94. — The  Vegetable  Garden. 

No.  154. — The  Home  Fruit  Garden:    Preparation  and  Care. 
No.  156. — The    Home    Vineyard,    with    Special    Reference    to 
Northern  Conditions. 

No.  198. — Strawberries. 
No.  213. — Raspberries. 

LESSON  LXXI 

BEAUTIFYING  HOME  AND   SCHOOL  GROUNDS 

During  this  month  we  shall  plant  trees,  shrubs,  and 
other  ornamental  plants  about  our  home  grounds.  Ear- 
lier in  the  season,  and  in  plenty  of  time  for  planting, 
we  should  have  ordered  our  stock  from  some  reliable 
house,  and  when  the  plants  arrive,  we  should  plant 
them  at  once.  Our  home  grounds  on  the  farm,  as 
shown  in  Lesson  I,  contain  about  two  acres.  See  prac- 
tical exercises  and  problems  for  further  plans. 

Beautiful  home  grounds. — It  does  not  require  wealth 
nor  rare  plants  to  beautify  the  home  or  school  grounds. 
With  little  expense,  good  taste,  a  knowledge  of  the 
above  principles,  and  a  willingness  to  work,  the  homes 
and  schools  of  our  country  could  be  made  more  at- 
tractive and  more  natural.  The  woods  are  full  of  wild 
shrubs  and  flowers  that  could  be  growing  on  our  home 
and  school  grounds,  if  we  would  only  transplant  them 
there.  On  Arbor  day  every  school  should  revive  the  in- 
terest of  the  community  in  tree  planting  and  other 
means  of  beautifying  the  home  grounds.  Back  yards 
with  barren  ground  covered  with  old  tin  cans  and  broken 
down  chicken  coops  are  not  the  surroundings  in  which 
boys  and  girls  can  grow  up  into  beautiful  and  useful 


BEAUTIFYING    GROUNDS 


245 


characters.  Our  minds  are  influenced  by  what  we  con- 
tinually look  upon,  and  if  we  must  look  upon  ugly  land- 
scapes, we  tend  to  grow  sordid  and  ugly  in  spirit;  on 
the  other  hand,  if  we  grow  up  in  a  home  and  school 
surrounded  by  beautiful  natural  scenes,  our  lives  must 
grow  more  refined  and  appreciative. 


FIG.   72.     BEAUTIFUL   HOME   GROUNDS 

Principles  of  landscape  gardening. — 1.  Provide  an 
open  unbroken  greensward  in  front  of  the  house.  There 
is  nothing  more  ornamental  than  a  wealth  of  green 
grass.  It  furnishes  the  canvas  upon  which  the  land- 
scape gardener  draws  his  picture.  It  should  not  be 
daubed  up  with  circular  flower  beds  or  other  artiricial 
things. 


246  LESSONS   IN    AGRICULTURE 

2.  Plant  trees  and  shrubs  in  masses  at  the  back- 
ground,  against   buildings,   or  on  the   borders  of  the 
lawn.     Ainj  to  hide  by  the  trees  and  shrubs  all  objec 
tionable  views  and  to  open  up  pleasing  vistas. 

3.  Plant   flowers  at  the  borders  of  shrub   masses, 
along  the  walks  and  buildings,  but  not  in  circular  or 
square  beds  in  the  open  lawn. 

4.  Avoid  the  straight  line  in  tree  and  shrub  plant- 
ing in  all  natural  designs.    Group  the  trees  and  shrubs, 
and  allow  them  to  swing  in  graceful  curves  into  the 
lawn  and  about  the  turns  of  walks. 

5.  Select  most  of  the  trees  and  shrubs  from  native 
plants  that  are  known  to  be  adapted  to  the  soil  and 
climate. 

6.  Follow  every   rule   for  successful   tree   planting 
known  to  the  horticulturist.     (See  next  lesson.) 

Setting  the  Plants. — In  preparation  for  planting  trees 
and  shrubs  the  holes  should  be  dug  at  least  four  feet 
in  diameter  and  two  feet  deep.  If  the  soil  is  hard 
and  poor,  it  should  be  replaced  by  good  earth,  and 
the  tree  should  be  mulched  with  coarse  litter,  after 
the  earth  has  been  firmed  well  about  the  roots  of  tho 
tree.  Do  not  use  water  in  planting  unless  the  soil  is 
very  dry.  The  cut  ends  of  all  roots  should  be  smooth- 
ly re-cut  before  planting.  Probably  one-half  of  the 
top  should  be  pruned  from  the  tree  or  shrub  in  order 
to  give  balance  to  the  roots. 

Plants  suggested  for  home  and  school  grounds. 
I.     List  of  annual  flowers:     Seed  to  be  sown  after  the 
danger  of  frost  is  over.     The  best  results  are  obtained 


BEAUTIFYING   GROUNDS 


247 


if  the  plants  are  started  in  the  house  in  April  and  set 
out  after  the  tenth  of  May.  Aster,  Cockscomb,  Cosmos, 
Dahlia,  Mignonette,  Myosotis,  and  Salvia. 

2.  Annuals :  Seeds  to  be  sown  early.  April  or  early 
May.  Ageratum,  Alyssum,  Amaranth,  Candytuft,  Car- 
nation, Chrysanthemum,  Dianthus,  Larkspur,  Mari- 


FIG.  73.     SUGGESTIONS  FOR  A  FARMYARD  (PROF.  WAUGH) 

gold,  Nasturtium,  Petunia,  Phlox,  Poppy,  Sweet  Pea, 
Verbena,  and  Zinnia. 

3.  List  of  popular  perennials:    Plants  to  be  grown 
the  previous  summer.     Columbine,  Campanula,  Canna, 
Hollyhock,  Poppy  (hardy),  Rudbeckia,  Sunflower,  Sweet 
William,  Delphinium,  and  all  hardy  pinks. 

4.  List  of  shrubs  for  borders:     Flowering  Almond, 
Dwarf   Cornus,    Elder,    Forsythia,   Bush    Honeysuckle, 


248  LESSONS    IN    AGRICULTURE 

Hydrangea,  Japan  Quince,  Lilac  in  variety,  Privet, 
Roses  in  variety,  Snowball,  Spirea,  Sumac,  Weigelia, 
Deutsia,  Norway  Spruce,  and  other  evergreens. 

5.  List  of  trees  for  home  and  school  grounds:     Su- 
gar Maple,  Norway  Maple,  Box  Elder,  White  Elm,  Sil- 
ver Maple,  White  Birch,   Catalpa  bungei,   Tulip  tree, 
Mulberry,  White  Oak,  etc. 

6.  In  planting  trees  about  our  homes  and  schools, 
we  should  not  forget  to  plant  a  few  such  as  the  Service- 
berry,    Hackberry,    Wild    Cherry,    etc.,    which    furnish 
food  for  the  song  birds  and  attract  them  to  our  homes 
to  add  their  life  and  cheer  to  the  natural  surroundings. 

Practical  Exercises 

1.     Planting  Design  for  the  School  Grounds. 

Measure  the  school  grounds,  and  draw  a  map  to  a 

scale,  locating  all  buildings,  trees,  and  shrubs.    Indicate 

in  the  drawing  the  plantings  you  would  add  to  the 

grounds.     (See  diagram  in  the  figure  for  suggestions.) 

2.  Planting  Design  for  Home  Grounds. 
Draw  a  map  of  your  home  grounds,  showing  all  build- 
ings, trees,  shrubs,  and  flower  plots.  Criticize  the  plan 
of  the  planting  and  suggest  improvements.  Make  a 
list  of  all  the  trees,  shrubs,  and  flowers  that  grow  on 
your  home  grounds. 

8.     Beautifying  the  School  Grounds. 

Have  a  "cleaning  up"  week,  during  which  the  school 
yard  is  cleared  of  all  trash  and  ugly  objects.  Carry 
this  movement  to  the  homes  and  enter  into  competition 
on  beautifying  home  grounds.  This  work  eould  be  done 
in  preparation  for  Arbor  Day,  and  the  planting  of 


FARM  FORESTRY  249 

flowers,  shrubs,  and  trees  would  be  a  fitting  climax  to 
the  whole  work. 

Free  Bulletins,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture 

Farmers'  Bulletins 

No.  134. — Tree  Planting  on  Rural  School  Grounds. 
No.  185. — Beautifying  the  Home  Grounds. 

Extracts 
No.    91. — Lawns  and  Lawn  Making. 

Problems 

1.  Draw  a  plan  of  the  home  grounds  on  the  farm 
as  shown   in  Lesson   I,   design  the  planting   octrees, 
shrubs,  and  hedges,  and  estimate  the  cost  of  such  plants 
as  listed  in  the  Moon   Co.   catalogue,   Morrisville,   Pa. 
Keep  a  record  of  the  cost. 

2.  Estimate  the  cost  of  planting  the  school  yard  as 
you  have  designed  it  in  the  exercise  above. 


LESSON  LXXII 

FARM   FORESTRY 

This  month  we  shall  plow  up  an  acre  of  our  old  farm 
wood  lot,  where  the  trees  have  all  been  cut  away,  and 
plant  it  in  catalpa  trees.  The  practical  exercises  given 
at  the  end  of  the  lesson's  discussion  will  explain  the 
method  of  planting. 

Importance  of  forests. — No  other  resource  of  the 
earth,  except  the  soil,  is  of  more  importance  to  man 
than  the  forests.  The  fact  is  there  would  hardly  be 
any  soil  at  all  if  it  had  not  been  for  the  forests.  The 
forests  are  our  chief  source  of  building  material  and 
fuel.  They  protect  and  hold  the  soil  and  water  of  the 


250 


LKSSONS    |\ 


earth.     Their  presence  makes  our  land  more  attractive 
and  healthful. 

Forests  necessary  for  civilization. — Our  civilization 
is  built  on  wood.  From  the  cradle  to  the  coffin,  in 
some  shape  or  other,  wood  surrounds  us  as  a  necessity 
or  luxury.  Wood  enters  into  the  construction  of  nearly 
all  our  houses.  It  serves  to  ornament  them,  to  furnish 


FIG.  74.     WOOD  LOT  AND  RANGER'S  CABIN 

them,  and  to  heat  them.  The  forests  furnish  the  plow 
handles  and  the  harrow  frames  to  cultivate  our  crops, 
the  thrashing  machines  and  mills  to  prepare  them,  the 
cart  to  bring  them  to  market,  the  bottoms  in  which 
(lu-y  cross  the  ocean,  and  the  tar  and  pitch  to  keep 


FARM    FORESTRY  251 

the  cargo  safe.  We  are  rocked  in  wooden  cradles,  play 
with  wooden  toys,  sit  in  wooden  chairs  and  benches, 
eat  from  wooden  tables,  use  wooden  desks,  chests  and 
trunks,  are  entertained  by  music  from  wooden  instru- 
ments, and  learn  by  information  printed  on  wooden 
paper  with  black  ink  made  from  wood. 

Forest  influences. — Besides  serving  the  great  purpose 
as  the  source  of  our  needed  supplies,  the  forests  exer- 
cise a  great  influence  upon  the  earth  and  its  inhabit- 
ants. Forests  are  often  the  source  of  streams,  and 
here  the  rains  and  snows  are  allowed  to  sink  slowly 
and  deeply  into  the  soil,  through  the  leaves,  roots,  and 
mould,  to  run  gradually  into  the  streams  through 
springs  and  underground  levels,  preventing  excessive 
floods,  and  extremes  of  drought.  The  forests  break  the 
force  of  winds  and  temper  the  climate.  In  short,  the 
forest  is  one  of  man's  greatest  blessings,  and  yet  it  is 
the  one  which  he  has  abused  with  the  most  reckless- 
ness and  ignorance.  In  no  part  of  the  world  has  this 
reckless  waste  been  greater  than  in  the  United  States. 

The  use  of  the  forests. — It  was  not  intended  that  the 
forests  be  hoarded  up  as  a  miser  hoards  his  gold; 
they  are  to  be  used.  But  it  is  possible  to  use  the  for- 
ests so  wisely  that  they  may  last  as  long  as  the  earth 
stands.  The  destructive  cutting  by  lumbermen,  and 
the  prevalence  of  forest  fires  have  been  the  causes  of 
waste  in  our  great  forest  resources.  Ex-President 
Roosevelt  said  that  forestry  is  the  art  of  saving  the 
forests  by  a  wise  use  of  what  they  afford.  Forestry 
teaches  men  how  to  keep  the  forests  alive  by  cutting 


252  LESSONS   IN   AGRICULTURE 

out  only  the  trees  that  have  got  their  growth,  in  such 
a  way  as  not  to  injure  or  destroy  the  younger  growth 
remaining.  Young  trees  are  given  light,  air,  and  room 
to  grow.  The  forest  floor  of  rich  leaf-mould  is  pre- 
served as  a  means  of  enriching  the  soil  and  holding  the 
moisture. 

The  control  of  the  forest. — Forestry  also  teaches  the 
best  way  of  replanting  or  "reforesting"  areas  in  which 
the  timber  has  already  been  destroyed.  The  respon- 
sibility for  wisely  caring  for  our  forests  may  be  laid 
upon  three  or  four  agencies — the  United  States  Govern- 
ment or  the  state  governments,  the  large  private  tim- 
ber owners,  and  the  American  farmer.  The  Forest 
Service  of  the  United  States  is  doing  a  great  and  valu- 
able service  to  the  people  in  its  wise  management 
of  millions  of  acres  of  forest  reserves  in  the  "Western 
States;  the  large  lumbermen  of  the  country  are  doing 
little  to  save  or  use  the  forests  wisely ;  it  is  to  the 
American  farmer  we  must  turn  with  high  hopes  that 
he  may  realize  that  he  is  the  most  important  trustee 
of  the  nation's  wealth  of  forest  resources. 

The  farmers'  woodlot. — Every  farmer  who  has  a 
woodlot,  and  every  farmer  ought  to  have  one,  may  prac- 
tice the  principles  of  forestry,  and  thus  use  his  timber 
wisely.  When  our  country  was  new,  land  had  to  be 
cleared  to  make  room  for  the  crops.  Great  trees  were 
cut  down  and  rolled  into  heaps  to  be  burned.  Wood 
was  worth  little  except  for  fuel.  Now  all  is  changed. 
The  price  of  wood  is  high,  and  is  rising  higher  every 
year.  The  farmer  who  has  a  woodlot  on  his  land  has 


FARM    FORESTRY  253 

a  valuable  piece  of  property,  and  although  it  may  not 
bring  him  much  in  turn  in  the  way  of  money,  it  is  almost 
a  necessity  for  successful  farming.  The  up-to-date  farmer 
now  values  and  cares  for  his  woodlot.  The  follow- 
ing are  some  points  to  observe  in  caring  for  a  woodlot: 

1.  Give  all  desirable  young  trees  every  advantage 
for  growth,  and  cut  out  all  undesirable  ones  for  fuel 
or  such  use  as  the  farmer  can  make  of  them. 

2.  It  is  injurious  to  a  woodlot  to  use  it  as  a  pas- 
ture.   The  stock  will  browse  on  the  young  trees,  tramp 
them  down,  and  cut  up  the  soil  and  forest  tree  roots. 

3.  Grass  should  never  be  allowed  to  get  started  in 
the  woodlot. 

4.  Old  and  dead  trees  should  be  cut  down  and  re- 
moved.    All  brush  and  old  logs  should  be  piled  and 
burned,  where  fire  cannot  injure  the  young  trees. 

5.  Where  bare  spots  occur  young  trees  should  be 
encouraged  to  grow,  either  by  planting  seeds  or  seed- 
lings. 

6.  It  may  be  well  to  plow  up  sections  of  the  old 
woodlot  and  plant  seedlings  of  such  trees  as  Black  Lo- 
cust, Catalpa,  or  Osage  Orange.    There  are  a  few  farm- 
ers in  this  country  that  have  made  the  woodlot  a  prof- 
itable proposition,  and  have  even  gone  so  far  as  to  set 
high  priced  corn  lands  to  young  forest  trees. 

Practical  Exercises 
1.     Transplanting  a  Tree 

Select  a  young  tree  to  be  transplanted.  Locate  the 
main  roots  by  striking  the  spade  into  the  ground  par- 
allel to  the  direction  of  the  roots.  Dig  out  from  the 


254  LESSONS    IN   AGRICULTURE 

tree  as  far  as  the  roots  extend,  avoid  cutting  off  too 
much  of  the  main  root  system,  and  secure  as  many 
roots  as  possible  in  a  ball  of  earth  to  be  removed  with 
them.  If  the  tree  is  to  be  carried  any  distance,  wrap 
the  roots  with  a  wet  cloth  or  carpet.  The  roots  must 
not  be  allowed  to  dry  out  before  transplanting. 

Dig  the  hole  into  which  the  tree  is  to  be  set,  a  little 
deeper  than  the  one  from  which  it  came.  Allow  ample 
room  for  all  roots.  Before  placing  the  tree,  trim  off 
neatly  all  injured  and  broken  roots.  Place  some  fine 
surface  soil  in  the  bottom  of  the  hole,  and  with  the 
hands  work  fine  soil  about  the  small  roots.  Fill  the 
earth  about  the  roots  carefully,  and  tramp  it  down  well. 
It  is  not  best  to  use  water  in  transplanting  unless  the 
soil  is  very  dry,  and  then  only  a  small  amount.  Round 
up  the  surface  of  the  ground  so  that  no  water  can  stand 
next  to  the  tree,  and  cover  with  a  loose,  fine  mulch  of 
earth.  The  inverted  sod  may  be  placed  on  top.  Now 
the  tree  must  be  trimmed  back  so  that  the  disturbed 
balance  between  root  and  top  may  be  restored. 

"Who  does  his  duty 

Is  a  question  too  complex  for  me; 

But  he,  I  venture  the  suggestion, 

Does  part  of  his  who  plants  a  tree." — Lowell. 

g.    Planting  a  Woodlot 

Send  to  Ohio  Valley  Nursery  Co.,  Lake,  Ind.,  or  to 
The  Little  Tree  Farm  Nurseries,  Farmingham,  Mass., 
for  1,000  seedlings  of  Catalpa  Speciosa,  will  cost 
about  $5.  Select  an  acre  of  ground,  plow  it  and  pre- 
pare it  as  for  a  corn  crop.  Lay  off  the  ground  in  fur- 
rows, six  feet  apart.  Cross  furrow  these  at  right  an- 


FARM    FORESTRY 


255 


Fio.    75.     How    TO   PLANT   A 


Courtesy  of  O.  J.  Kern. 
TREE 


FIRST 

Dig  a  hole  plenty  large  and 
deep.  Do  not  be  afraid  to  bend 
the  back.  Leave  some  pulverized 
earth  in  the  bottom  of  the  hole. 


SECOND 

"There   gently   lay   the   roots,   and 

there 
Sift  the  dark   mould  with   kindly 

care, 
As,    round    the    sleeping    infant's 

feet, 
We  softly  fold  the  cradle  sheet." 


THIRD 

After  the  roots  are  carefully 
covered  then  press  the  earth  down 
solid  as  the  hole  is  filled.  Then 
the  wind  as  it  moves  the  tree  will 
not  disturb  the  roots. 

FOURTH 

Leave  loose  earth  on  top  so 
moisture  may  soak  in.  Let  the 
children  plant  nasturtium  seed 
and  thus  cultivate  the  ground. 


256  LESSONS    IN    AGRICULTURE 

gles,  the  same  distance  apart.  Plant  the  Catalpa  seed- 
lings at  the  intersection  of  the  furrows.  These  little 
trees  will  he  six  feet  apart  and  there  will  he  ahout 
1,000  trees  on  the  acre.  The  trees  must  be  cultivated 
three  or  four  times  during  May  and  June.  In  July 
sow  to  cowpeas,  vetch,  or  clover  to  serve  as  a  winter 
cover  crop.  Keep  up  this  system  of  cultivation  and 
cover  cropping  for  three  or  four  seasons,  or  until  the 
trees  shade  the  entire  ground  beneath  them.  They  will 
probably  need  some  pruning  to  keep  the  stems  straight 
and  from  forking  too  badly:  If  the  wind  blows  any 
trees  over  or  they  persist  in  growing  crooked,  cut  the 
trees  off  at  the  ground  and  new,  strong,  straight  trees 
will  grow  from  the  roots. 

For  a  school  exercise  any  smaller  area  planted  in  this 
manner  will  serve.  The  author  strongly  recommends 
the  use  of  this  exercise  in  the  rural  schools. 

D»*aw  a  plot  of  the  ground  and  show  the  position  of 
the  trees. 

NOTE. — Black  Locust,  White  Willow,  Osage  Orange, 
and  Yellow  Poplar  are  good  woodlot  trees  to  plant  and 
they  yield  quick  returns. 

3.     An  Excursion  t~  the  Woods 

Let  the  class  and  teacher  take  a  walk  to  the  woods. 
Make  notes  of  your  observations  on  the  following  points : 

1.  The  comparative  temperature  within  and  without 
the  woods. 

2.  The  rich  humus  soil  of  the  forest  floor,  and  how 
the  roots  and  leaf  mould  hold  the  moisture  and  pre- 
vent washing.     Point  out  examples  of  washes  where 


FAEM    FORESTRY 


257 


I  h<-  forest  has  been  cut  away,  and  explain  how  the  soil 
is  carried  to  the  streams,  and  its  effects  upon  them. 

3.  Find  trees  of  virgin  growth  and  also  the  second 
growth.    Note  any  dangerous  firetraps. 

4.  If   a    freshly   cut   stump   or   log   can   be   found, 


FIG.   76.     CATALPA  GROVE  THREE  YEARS  OLD 

count  the  rings  of  growth  and  determine  the  age  of  the 
tree. 

5.  Make  a  few  estimations  of  the  diameter  and 
heights  of  the  largest  trees.  Pupils  might  calculate  the 
number  of  cubic  feet  of  timber  in  a  large  tree,  and  by 
squaring  the  diameter  in  inches,  minus  four,  it  becomes 
board  measure  in  a  sixteen-foot  log. 


258  LESSONS    IN    AGRICULTURE 

6.  Make  a  list  in  the  notebook  of  the  names  of  all 
the  trees  you  can. 

7.  Point  out  the  ironwood,  blue-beech,  hazei,  scrub 
oaks,  and  other  useless  "tree  weeds"  that  should  be  re- 
moved in  improvement  cuttings. 

By  referring  to  Roth's  First  Book  of  Forestry,  or 
to  Pinchot's  Primer  of  Forestry,  many  valuable  lessons 
may  be  continued  in  this  work. 

Problems 

1.  At  $6  per  cord,  what  is  the  value  of  a  pile  of 
wood  240  feet  long,  six  feet  high  and  four  feet  wide? 

2.  A  farmer  gets  six  cords  of  wood  from  ten  trees. 
With  wood  at  $5.50  per  cord,  what  is  the  value  of  these 
trees  ? 

3.  What  is  the  value  of  a  single  tree  at  the  same 
rate? 

4.  Suppose  there  are  fifty  such  trees  on  an  acre, 
what  is  the  value  of  the  wood  on  this  piece  of  land? 

5.  What  is  the  value  of  a  woodlot  of  fifteen  acres 
at  the  same  rate? 

6.  Suppose  a  farmer  removes  the  five  biggest  trees 
per  acre  from  his  woodlot  each  year.    If  each  tree  makes 
three-fourths  of  a  cord  of  wood,  worth  $6  per  cord,  and 
it  costs  80  cents  per  cord  for  cutting,  what  profit  does 
he  make  per  acre  on  his  woodlot? 

7.  Compare  this  with  the  profit  on  an  acre  of  oats. 

8.  Compare  it  with  the  profit  on  an  acre  of  corn. 

9.  What  will  the  profit  on   a  twelve-acre  woodlot 
be  at  the  same  rate? 


SPRAYING   FOR    DISEASES  259 

10.  If  a  Catalpa  wood-lot  contains  1,000  ten-year-old 
trees  per  acre,  and  each  tree  would  make  two  fence 
posts,  what  would  the  trees  on  five  acres  be  worth  at 
30c  a  post? 

Free  Bulletins,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture 
Farmers'  Bulletins 

No.    54. — Some  Common  Birds  in  Their  Relation  to  Agricul- 
ture. 

No.  150. — Clearing  New  Land. 

No.  173. — A  Primer  of  Forestry. 


LESSON  LXXIII 

SPRAYING      FOR      CODLING      MOTH      AND       FUNGOUS 
DISEASES 

Time  to  spray. — It  is  late  in  April  and  the  apple 
blossoms  have  just  fallen  from  the  trees.  We  know  now 
that  the  codling  moth  larva  or  "apple  worm"  will  soon 
be  eating  its  way  into  the  blossom  end  of  the  apples, 
and  we  know,  too,  that  unless  we  do  something  to  check 
its  ravages,  our  fruit  will  fall  or  be  wormy  and  worth- 
less. Fortunately  we  do  not  have  to  give  up  to  the  cod- 
ling moth,  for  we  may  spray  our  trees,  kill  the  moth, 
and  save  the  apples. 

Lime-sulphur  and  lead  arsenate. — If  any  farmer  in 
the  neighborhood  has  a  spray  pump,  he  no  doubt  would 
be  willing  to  loan  it  to  the  school  for  this  lesson.  The 
school  should  own  some  good  spray  pump,  such  as  the 
Gould's  Pomona,  and  use  it  for  demonstration  purposes 
in  the  orchards  of  the  district.  The  spray  material  usu- 
ally used  is  the  combined  lime-sulphur  mixture  and  lead 
arsenate.  The  lime-sulphur  checks  the  spreads  of  such 


260 


LESSONS    IN    AGRICULTURE 


diseases  as  apple  scab,  "frog  eye"  fungus,  brown  rots, 
etc.,  and  the  lead  arsenate  kills  the  "apple  worm," 
leaf-eating  caterpillars,  and  other  chewing  insects. 
Ready  prepared  lime-sulphur  solutions  may  be  pur- 
chased from  reliable  firms  for  between  10  and  20  cents 
a  gallon,  and  a  gallon  and  one-half  diluted  to  about 


Fio.  77.     SPRAYING  A  FRUIT  TREE 

fifty  gallons  with  water,  will  spray  about  ten  average 
sized  bearing  apple  trees.  To  this  mixture  should  be 
added  about  three  pounds  of  lead  arsenate,  to  be  used 
against  the  codling  moth.  (See  Lesson  12  for  making 
of  Bordeaux  Mixture.) 


SPRAYING    FOR    DISEASES 


261 


Practical  Exercises 
1.    Preparing  and  Using  the  Lime-sulphur  Lcad-arsenate  Mixture 

If  one  wishes  to  prepare  his  own  material,  see  Lesson 
64.  The  stock  solution  is  diluted  and  used  as  described 
above. 

Force    the    spray    thoroughly    and    completely    onto 


Courtesy  of  B.  F.  Johnson  Pub.  Co. 
FIG.    78.     THE   CODLING   MOTH 

every  leaf,  twig,  stem,  and  fruit  of  the  tree.  When 
the  codling  moth  larva  hatches  from  the  eggs  which 
have  been  laid  on  the  leaves  and  the  apples,  and  begins 
to  crawl  toward  the  apples,  it  may  nibble  at  some  of 
the  poisoned  leaves,  but  it  is  sure  to  get  its  last  meal 
as  it  attempts  to  eat  into  the  blossom  end  of  the  fruit. 
If  this  operation  of  spraying  is  repeated  in  about  three 
or  four  weeks  after  the  blossoms  fall,  and  then  in  mid- 
summer to  combat  the  second  brood,  the  trees  and  fruit 


262 


LESSONS    IN    AGRICULTURE 


will  be  saved  from  tin*  moth  and  from  the  fungous  dis- 
eases, and  the  apple  trees  may  yield  a  hundredfold. 

Applications  to  the  State  Experiment  Station  should 
be  made  for  the  latest  spray  calendars. 

This  exercise  should  by  all  means  be  carried  out  in 
the  public  schools. 

Reference:     Farmers'  Bulletin,  No.  243. 


FIG.  79. 


Courtesy  of  B.  F.  Johnson  Pub.  Co. 
APPLES  FROM   SPRAYED  AND  UNSPRAYED  BRANCHES 


Problems 

1.  Our  farm  orchard  contains  four  acres  of  apple 
trees.     How   much   will   it  cost  to  spray   the   orchard 
with   the   lime-sulphur  and   lead   arsenate?     Lime-sul- 
phur at  20  cents  a  gallon,  and  lead  arsenate  at  15  cents 
a  pound. 

2.  The  Bordeaux-lead-arsenate  mixture,  ready  pre- 
pared will  cost  $1  per  gallon.     This  will  make  up  fifty 
gallons  of  spray  material.     How  much  could  we  save 
by  making  our  own  mixture,  if  lime  is  1  cent  per  pound, 
and  copper  sulphate  10  cents  per  pound?     (See  Lesson 
12.) 

3.  Which  is  cheaper,  lime-sulphur  or  Bordeaux  f 


PLANTING   CORN 


263 


LESSON  LXXIV 
PLANTING  COEN 

Preparation  of  seed  bed. — Having  selected  our  seed 
corn,  and  tested  it  for  germination,  the  next  step  we 
must  take  in  corn  culture  is  to  prepare  the  soil  to  re- 
ceive the  seed.  A  rich  humus  soil,  loose,  warm,  and 
moist,  will  produce  a  better  crop  of  corn  than  any 
other.  If  the  field  has  been  fall-plowed,  it  should  now 


Courtesy  of  Farm  and  Fireside. 


FIG.  80.     JERRY  MOORE  AND  His  228%   Bu.  OF  CORN  RAISED  ON  ONE 

ACRE 

be  double-disked  and  harrowed  in  preparation  for  the 
planting.  In  many  cases  corn  follows  corn,  and  the 
plowing  must  be  done  in  the  spring.  In  this  case  a 
disking  before  plowing  will  cut  up  the  stalks  and  pro- 
vide a  fine  layer  which  will  fall  into  the  bottom  of  the 
furrow,  and  help  to  restore  capillarity.  In  soils  that 
are  liable  to  bake,  each  day's  plowing  should  be  har- 


264  LKSSONS   IN   A<;KICI;LTURK 

rowed  as  soon  as  possible.  A  little  extra  work  at  this 
time  may  prevent  the  formation  of  clods,  and  save  ten 
times  as  much  trouble  in  trying  to  pulverize  them  later. 
Three  or  four  additional  harrowings  will  usually  put 
the  ground  into  first  class  shape  for  planting.  In  our 
farm  plan,  as  shown  in  Lesson  I,  we  shall  plant  field 
number  1  to  corn.  This  has  been  in  clover  for  two 
years,  and  by  deep  plowing,  rolling,  and  through  har- 
rowing we  shall  have  a  most  excellent  seed  bed  for  our 
corn. 

Planting  the  seed. — It  is  better  to  check  than  to  drill 
when  growing  corn  for  grain,  as  it  can  be  kept  cleaner, 
with  a  resulting  larger  yield.  For  fodder  or  silage, 
drilled  corn  gives  more  tons  of 'dry  matter  per  acre  and 
is  more  easily  handled  by  the  corn  binder.  In  some 
of  the  states  west  of  the  Missouri  River,  where  the  soil 
is  light  and  rainfall  scanty,  listing  gives  the  best  re- 
sults. 

The  number  of  kernels  to  use  per  hill  depends  upon 
the  richness  of  the  soil.  On  the  average  corn  belt  soils 
three  kernels  per  hill  will  give  the  best  results.  Very 
rich  soils  can  support  four,  while  on  poor  soils  two  are 
enough.  It  pays  both  in  appearance  and  in  ease  of  cul- 
tivating to  drive  straight  while  planting  and  to  have 
the  rows  check  straight  crosswise. 

Early  cultivation. — As  many  harrowings  as  possible 
should  be  given  the  corn  between  planting  time  and  the 
time  it  comes  up.  If  heavy  rains  have  packed  the  soil 
or  if  it  is  badly  infested  with  weeds,  it  will  pay  to  fol- 
low the  planter  marks  with  the  cultivator  before  har- 
rowing. 


PLANTING   CORN  265 

Practical  Exercises 
1.    Entering  a  Corn  Contest 

Write  to  the  Extension  Department  of  your  State  Col- 
lege of  Agriculture  and  ask  to  enter  the  boys'  corn  con- 
test of  the  county  or  state.  If  a  contest  is  on,  and  there 
will  be  one  planned  in  almost  every  state  in  the  union, 
you  will  be  told  where  to  get  your  seed  corn,  and  how 
to  plant  and  cultivate  it  for  the  corn  show  and  contest. 

If  the  teacher  and  pupils  wish  to  work  out  a  corn 
contest  of  their  own,  each  pupil  should  be  provided 
with  one  pint  of  high  grade  seed  corn.  Select  a  strip 
in  your  father's  field,  enough  to  plant  two  rows  S1/^ 
feet  apart  and  37  1-3  rods  long — this  will  be  a  tenth 
acre  plot.  Select  and  test  the  seed  corn  as  described 
in  former  lessons.  Prepare  the  ground  as  described 
above.  Plant  the  corn  in  hills,  about  three  kernels  to  a 
hill,  and  each  hill  about  four  feet  apart.  Cultivate  at 
least  once  a  week  (if  the  ground  is  dry  enough)  from 
the  time  the  corn  is  big  enough  until  it  begins  to  tassel. 
(See  Lesson  32.)  From  your  plot  you  may  gather  the 
ears  which  will  win  the  prize. 

Such  a  contest  should  be  arranged  for  and  carried 
out  by  the  Boys'  Club  of  the  school.  (See  Farmers' 
Bulletin,  No.  385.) 

2.     Starting  ihe  Ear-to-row  Plot  for  Raising  Seed  Corn 

Place  one  hundred  of  the  best  ears  of  corn  you  can 
find  on  a  table  before  you.  Select  from  this  lot  twenty- 
five  of  the  best  ears,  and  number  them  from  one  to 
twenty-five.  On  the  test  plot  of  the  farm  (see  Lesson 
I),  prepare  the  ground  thoroughly  for  planting  as 


266  LESSONS    IX    AGRICULTURE 

described  above.  Lay  off  twenty-five  rows,  and  number 
each  row  from  1  to  25.  Plant  about  half  of  ear  number 
1  in  row  number  1.  Plant  one-half  of  ear  number  2  in 
row  number  2,  and  so  on  to  number  25.  Give  all  the 
rows  equal  and  thorough  cultivation.  At  husking  time 
we  can  judge  which  row  has  yielded  most,  which  has 
the  best  corn  in  it,  and  so  on  for  other  desired  points. 
By  saving  the  seed  from  the  best  rows  for  our  ear  row 
test  next  year,  we  can  soon  breed  up  by  selection  an 
improved  strain  of  corn. 

Problems 

1.  How  long  will  it  take  to  plow  a  ten-acre  field  in 
preparation  for  corn  planting?     How  long  to  harrow 
it?     If  the  work  were  hired  done  how  much  would  it 
cost  at  the  usual  price  of  labor? 

2.  How  much  seed  corn  will  be  needed  to  plant  the 
ten  acres  if  the  corn  is  drilled?    How  much  if  checked 
with  a  planter? 

3.  What  will  it  cost  to  hire  all  the  labor  and  to  buy 
the  seed  corn  ? 

4.  If  the  yield  of  corn  were  increased  five  bushels 
to  the  acre  in  your  state,  how  much  wealth  would  be 
added  to  the  state  by  the  increase?     (See  the  Year  Book 
of  1909.) 

References:      Farmers'  Bulletins,  NOB.  81,  229,  409,  281,  and 
385. 


MAY 

On  the  farm. — May  is  the  month  of  planting,  trans- 
planting, and  cultivation.  The  corn  is  to  be  cultivated 
constantly:  potatoes,  cucumbers,  melons,  beans,  etc.,  are 
to  be  planted;  tomatoes,  cabbage,  sweet  potatoes,  and 
celery  are  to  be  transplanted;  and  continual  warfare 
against  weeds  and  insects  must  be  waged. 

LESSON  LXXV 

CULTIVATION  OF  CORN 

The  proper  time  to  begin  the  cultivation  of  corn  is 
before  it  is  planted.  As  was  said  in  the  previous  lesson, 
the  ground  should  be  plowed  deeply,  the  surface  har- 
rowed mellow  and  fine,  and  the  corn  planted  in  hills 
or  in  drilled  rows. 

Methods  of  cultivation. — As  soon  as  the  rows  can 
be  followed  the  cultivator  should  be  started.  If  any 
deep  cultivation  is  to  be  given  it  should  be  the  first 
two  times  over,  before  the  soil  is  filled  with  corn  roots. 
After  the  corn  is  six  or  eight  inches  high  some  form 
of  surface  cultivator  that  will  not  disturb  the  soil  to  a 
depth  of  more  than  two  or  three  inches  should  be  used. 
In  the  western  part  of  the  corn  belt,  where  the  fields 
are  large,  the  two  row  cultivator  is  becoming  popular. 
If  the  corn  is  very  straight  both  ways  these  cultivators 

267 


268  LESSONS    IN    AGK1CULTUKE 

work  well  after  the  first  time  over  and  enable  one  man 
to  handle  at  least  half  as  much  more  land. 

The  cultivator. — The  problem  of  cultivating  a  corn- 
field several  hundred  acres  in  extent,  such  as  is  found 
in  many  of  the  great  corn  growing  regions  of  the  prairie 
states,  has  been  greatly  simplified  since  the  two  row 
cultivator  came  into  use.  With  the  perfect  working 
corn  planters  now  in  the  market  the  row  of  corn  may 
be  made  so  straight  that  the  two  row  cultivator  can  be 
used  without  difficulty.  This  has  brought  about  a  facil- 
ity of  cultivation  which  has  added  largely  to  the  yield 
in  many  parts  of  the  country.  Before  the  coming  of 
the  double  row  cultivator  there  was  danger  that  much 
of  the  land  of  the  western  portion  of  the  belt  would 
become  too  weedy  for  corn  culture. 

Reasons  for  cultivation. — Corn  is  a  crop  that  needs 
constant  cultivation,  and  during  the  growing  season 
should  be  cultivated  at  least  four  times.  This  cultiva- 
tion is  for  three  reasons: 

1.  To  destroy  weeds  that  use  up  the  plant  food  and 
water. 

2.  To  provide  a  soil  mulch  to  prevent  evaporation. 

3.  Because  tillage  is  a  fertilizer.     Constant  stirring 
of  the  soil  allows  the  air  to  circulate  through  it,  and 
provides  available  plant  food. 

Corn  is  king. — Corn  is  king  of  the  cereals,  and  the 
most  important  crop  of  American  agriculture.  It  is 
the  backbone  of  farming  in  this  country.  The  white 
man  learned  the  value  of  this  cereal  from  the  Indians, 


CULTIVATION    OF   CORN  269 

and  since  then  its  culture  has  kept  pace  with  the  won- 
derful growth  of  our  country. 

Boys'  corn  clubs. — The  following  story,  told  by  one 
of  Dr.  S.  A.  Knapp's  agents  in  connection  with  the 
Boys'  Corn  Club  movement  illustrates  how  the  boys 
are  learning  to  follow  scientific  methods  in  corn  culture : 

"One  boy  in  our  club  was  very  anxious  to  work  an 
acre  in  corn.  His  father  gave  him  one  on  condition 
that  he  dig  out  the  pine  stumps  and  pay  all  expenses. 
After  the  boy  had  gotten  out  nearly  all  the  stumps  in 


FIG.  82.     GROWTH  OF  CORN  ROOTS 

the  field,  the  father  took  that  acre  and  gave  him  another, 
upon  the  same  condition.  The  boy  went  to  work,  cleaned 
this  new  field  and  plowed  it.  Then  I  advised  him  to 
plow  it  again.  When  the  boy  wanted  some  fertilizer 
his  father  refused  to  permit  him  to  buy  till  I  went  se- 
curity and  promised  to  make  good  all  losses,  if  any.  The 
boy's  corn  was  measured  this  week  and  made  eighty- 
four  bushels  to  the  acre.  His  father's  corn,  on  three 
sides  of  the  boy's,  made  nine  bushels  per  acre.  When 
the  corn  was  weighed  and  the  father's  went  to  the 


270  LESSONS    IN    AGRICULTURE 

pigs  and  the  son's  sold  for  seed  corn  at  two  dollars 
per  bushel,  the  father  changed  front. ' ' 

References:  Farmers'  Bulletins,  Nos.  199,  229,  385,  281,  and 
81. 

Practical  Exercises 

1.    The  Stand  of  Corn 

Select  a  field  of  corn  near  the  school  and  secure  the 
owner's  permission  to  visit  it.  Invite  the  owner  to  go 
with  you.  Let  each  pupil  begin  with  the  first  hill  of 
corn  in  a  row  and  count  to  the  hundredth  hill.  If  the 
corn  has  been  checked  and  it  was  intended  that  there 
should  be  three  stalks  to  the  hill,  there  would  be  in  a 
perfect  stand  300  stalks.  Now  count  back  and  find  the 
number  of  stalks  in  the  100  hills.  If  there  are  but  150, 
the  stand  is  50  per  cent.  Each  pupil  should  determine 
the  percentage  of  the  stand  in  the  row  he  has  counted. 
Each  pupil  should  find  out  as  nearly  as  possible  the 
average  stand  of  corn  on  the  home  farm  and  report 
to  the  class  for  the  next  lesson.  It  will  be  interesting 
to  parents,  and  in  many  cases  a  surprise  to  them,  to 
find  that  they  have  less  than  a  50  per  cent  stand  when 
they  thought  it  80  per  cent.  In  all  cases  discuss  the 
reasons  for  the  good  or  bad  stand.  It  is  clear  that  the 
farmer  does  not  wish  to  lose  his  time  and  labor  on  va- 
cant hills,  when  he  might  just  as  well  have  a  liberal 
harvest  from  them. 

2.    Corn  Soots  in  Cultivation 

Go  to  a  corn  field  where  cultivation  is  in  progress. 
Examine  the  soil,  the  method  and  depth  of  cultiva- 
tion. Note  the  stand,  health,  and  general  condition  of 
the  crop. 


CULTIVATION    OF    CORN 


271 


Carefully  remove  a  few  stalks  of  corn — roots  and 
all — and  take  them  to  the  schoolroom  to  study  as  follows : 

Carefully  wash  the  soil  from  the  young  roots,  and 
spread  them  out  upon  a  sheet  of  paper.  Get  a  root 


FIG.  83.     OHIO  CORN  FIELD  IN  SHOCK 

from  the  mature  plants  and  have  it  before  you  for 
comparison. 

Note  the  following  points  of  the  corn  root,  and  tabu- 
late your  answer  below : 

1.  Length  and  number  of  principal  roots. 

2.  Amount  of  branching  from  any  one  root. 

3.  Direction  in  which  the  roots  extend  from  the  base 
of  the  plant. 

4.  Amount  of  cubical  space  used  as  feeding  ground. 

5.  How  near  the  surface  do  the  rdots  lie  ? 


272  LESSONS    IN    AGRICULTURE 

6.  Difference   between   spur    roots   and   the   others. 
State  reasons. 

7.  Can  you  find  root-cap  and  root-hairs? 

8.  Does  your  observation  lead  you  to  any  conclu- 
sions about  tha  cultivation  of  corn  ?    Explain. 

9.  Make  a  drawing  of  the  corn  root  system. 

LESSON  LXXVI 

TILLING    THE    SOIL 

Tillage. — Since  May  is  especially  the  month  of  soil 
cultivation,  it  seems  best  to  study  further  into  the  es- 
sentials of  tillage.  Tillage  is  next  to,  if  not  equal  to, 
fertilization  of  the  soil.  It  includes  the  preparation, 
the  planting,  and  the  cultivation  of  the  land. 

Value  of  tillage. — As  we  have  learned,  the  plant  is 
fed  by  the  roots,  penetrating  into  the  soil,  gathering 
up  the  dissolved  food  and  passing  it  on  to  the  plant. 
If  the  soil  is  coarse  and  lumpy  these  feeding  roots  can- 
not get  at  the  food  held  in  the  lumps,  but  must  feed 
from  their  surface.  Tillage  breaks  up  these  lumps,  pul- 
verizes them  and  allows  the  roots  to  get  at  the  food  they 
contain.  Stirring  the  soil  also  allows  the  water  to  dis- 
solve the  plant  food  more  readily. 

Depth  of  plowing. — Deep  plowing  in  most  cases  is 
best.  It  brings  to  the  surface  plant  foods  not  reached 
by  shallow  cultivation,  and  it  pulverizes  the  soil  so 
that  roots  can  enter  the  ground  to  a  greater  depth  and 
have  more  soil  to  feed  from.  This  is  especially  true  for 
such  root  crops  as  beets,  parsnips,  etc.,  and  for  tubers 


TILLING   SOIL 


273 


like  the  potato.  In  fact,  deep  plowing  serves  the  same 
valuable  purpose  for  all  plants,  not  only  in  giving  more 
and  better  root  feeding  space,  but  in  catching  and  hold- 
ing more  of  the  rainfall.  We  have  already  learned  that 
water  exists  in  the  soil  both  as  underground  water  and 


DEEP    1  LC 


as  capillary  water,  and  that  the  water  which  supplies 
the  roots  of  the  plants  is  the  capillary  water  drawn  up 
from  the  underground  water  below.  Now  unless  the 
ground  is  deeply  plowed,  there  is  less  rainfall  caught 
to  supply  this  underground  water,  and  hence  less  to 
supply  by  capillarity  to  the  plant  roots. 
Surface  cultivation. — If  the  deep  plowing  catches 


274  LESSONS    IN    AGRICULTURE 

and  holds  larger  quantities  of  rainfall  than  no  plowing 
or  shallow  plowing,  it  becomes  the  part  of  good  tillage 
to  save  as  much  of  this  ground  water  as  possible  by 
preventing  its  evaporation  from  the  surface.  We  know 
that  if  we  cover  a  vessel  of  water  it  keeps  the  sun  from 
drying  it  up.  In  the  same  way  a  cover  spread  over  the 
soil  will  check  the  evaporation  of  the  capillary  water. 
The  simplest  way  to  get  this  cover  spread  over  the 
soil  is  to  cultivate  it.  The  layer  of  cultivated  soil  dries 
out  rapidly,  but  it  keeps  the  air  from  getting  at  the 
moist  soil  underneath  and  drying  it  out,  and  it  also 
breaks  the  rise  of  capillary  water  and  prevents  its  com- 
ing to  the  surface.  The  surface  cultivation  should  be 
shallow  to  prevent  injury  to  the  plant  roots,  and  it 
should  be  frequent  to  provide  the  dust  mulch. 

Constant  cultivation. — When  the  writer  was  a  boy, 
living  in  the  corn  belt  of  Illinois,  it  used  to  seem  a 
terrible  hardship  when  the  father  announced,  after  just 
finishing  the  cultivation  of  a  large  field  of  corn,  that  we 
must  now  go  back  to  the  beginning  and  go  over  it  all 
again.  Fishing  and  swimming  never  seemed  more  in- 
viting to  the  boy,  but  the  father  knew  what  was  best 
for  the  corn.  He  knew  that  constant  cultivation  was 
the  price  to  pay  for  a  good  crop.  He  paid  the  price 
and  got  the  reward. 

Summary. — To  summarize,  we  may  give  four  chief 
reasons  for  tillage:  (1)  To  pulverize  the  soil,  so  that 
plant  roots  can  easily  penetrate  in  every  direction 
and  get  at  the  store  of  plant  food  the  soil  contains. 
(2)  To  increase  the  water-holding  capacity  of  the 


TILLING   SOIL  375 

soil.  (3)  To  aerate  the  soil  and  thus  sweeten  and 
warm  it.  (4)  To  destroy  weeds  and  form  a  soil  mulch 
which  will  prevent  rapid  evaporation  from  the  surface. 

Practical  Exercises 
1.     Field  Studies  of  Tillage 

Go  to  a  field  where  plowing  or  cultivation  is  being 
done.     Make  notes  of  your  observations  as  follows: 


|                                       |    Method  of     | 
Depth    of    Plowing   |    Condition  of  Soil    |   Cultivation    |    Moisture  Condition 

Free  Bulletins,  IT.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture 
No.  306. — Some  Soil  Problems  for  Practical  Farmers. 

Problems 

1.  How  many  square  feet  in  one  square  yard?     In 
one  acre  ? 

2.  If  soil  is  cultivated  to  the  depth  of  four  inches, 
how  many  cubic  feet  of  cultivated  soil  per  acre?    How 
many,  if  cultivated  to  the  depth  of  six  inches?    If  cul- 
tivated to  the  depth  of  eight  inches? 

3.  How  much  more  plant  food  is  made  available  with 
cultivation  to  the  depth  of  eight  inches  than  with  a  four- 
inch  depth  of  cultivation  ? 

4.  How  many  times  as  much  available  plant  food 
in  soil  cultivated  to  the  depth  of  six  inches  as  in  soil 
cultivated  only  four  inches  deep? 

5.  If  a  man  and  team  can  plow  one  and  a  half  acres 
six  inches  deep,  or  two  acres  four  inches  deep  in  a  day, 
how  much  more  does  it  cost  per  acre  to  plow  land  six 


276  LESSONS   IN   AGRICULTURE 

inches  deep  than  to  plow  it  only  four  inches  deep  ?    La- 
bor worth  $2.40  per  day. 

6.  If  a  man  and  team  can  till  three  acres  thoroughly 
in  a  day,  or  five  acres  in  a  careless  manner,  how  much 
more  per  acre  does  a  good  job  cost,  labor  being  worth 
$2.40  per  day? 

7.  How  much  more  per  acre  does  it  cost  to  both 
plow  and  till  well?     How  many  additional  bushels  of 
oats  worth  36  cents  per  bushel  will  it  take  to  pay  for 
the  additional  labor? 

8.  How  much  will  be  the  gain  if  but  forty  bushels 
of  oats  can  be  raised  with  shallow  plowing  and  careless 
seeding,  and  fifty-seven  bushels  with  the  extra  work? 
How  much  will  these  oats  be  worth  at  24  cents  per 
bushel?    At  30  cents  per  bushel?    At  the  present  price 
of  oats  ? 

9.  A  certain  piece  of  land  yields  thirty-five  bushels 
of  corn  per  acre.    By  careful  cultivation  the  farmer  is 
able  to  increase  this  yield  to  sixty  bushels.    With  corn 
worth  40  cents  per  bushel  how  many  additional  days' 
labor  at  $1  per  day  will  the  extra  yield  pay  for? 

10.  If  he  spends  but  twenty  days'  extra  time  on  his 
twelve-acre  field  of  corn  to  produce  the  increase  in  crop 
shown  in  problem  9,  how  much  does  he  get  per  day  for 
his  extra  time  ? 

11.  Suppose  a  farmer  is  able  to  double  the  average 
yield  of  160  bushels  of  potatoes  from  an  acre  of  land 
by  putting  fifteen  days'  extra  time  on  it.    What  wages 
does  he  get  with  potatoes  at  25  cents  per  bushel  ? 

12.  From  answers  to  the  following  questions  make 


TILLING   SOIL  377 

other  problems  similar  to  the  above.  What  does  labor 
cost  per  day?  How  many  acres  can  a  man  plow  per 
day?  How  many  acres  can  he  seed  in  a  day?  How 
many  acres  of  corn  can  he  cultivate?  Will  extra  labor 
increase  the  yield  of  corn  ?  etc.,  etc. 


LESSON  LXXVII 

TRANSPLANTING 

Plants  transplanted. — Our  plants  growing  in  the 
hotbed  will  be  ready  to  transplant  this  month.  We  shall 
transplant  tomatoes,  cabbage,  celery,  eggplant,  pansies, 
and  probably  some  young  trees. 

Principles  in  transplanting. — If  the  hotbed  has  been 
made  at  the  school  there  will  be  plenty  of  material 
available.  It  is  an  important  and  practical  lesson  to 
learn.  The  following  rules  will  guide  to  successful  trans- 
planting : 

1.  Transplant  when  the  weather  is  cool  and  damp, 
preferably  in  the  late  afternoon. 

2.  Transplant  when  the  plant  is  young. 

3.  Break  the  roots  as  little  as  possible  in  taking  the 
young  plant  up,  and  keep  them  moist  and  shaded. 

4.  It  is  well  to  cut  off  some  of  the  top  in  transplant- 
ing, in  order  to  restore  the  balance  between  the  root 
and  top,  since  some  of  the  roots  were  probably  lost  in 
transplanting. 

5.  The  plant  should  be  dipped  in  water  and  have 
moist  fertile  soil  packed  firmly  about  the  roots.    If  water 


278  LKsso.NS    IN    AGRICULTURE 

is  to  be  used  it  should  be  poured  about  the  roots  before 
all  the  soil  is  added. 

6.  The  plant  should  have  as  large  a  space  as  that 
in  which  it  originally  grew.     The  soil  should  be  put 
in  first  at  the  bottom  of  the  hole  in  which  the  roots 
are  to  grow,  and  the  subsoil,  if  any,  at  the  surface.    It 
is  important  to  make  the  soil  firm  about  the  roots. 

7.  It  is  sometimes  well  to  shade  the  young  trans- 
plant a  few  days  from  the  hot  sunshine,  or  to  protect 
the  roots  with  a  mulch  of  straw  or  grass. 

The  pupils  in  agriculture  should  by  all  means  get 
some  actual  practice  in  transplanting,  if  in  no  other 
way  than  by  going  to  the  school  yard  and  getting  wild 
plants  to  transplant  in  pots  or  in  out-door  plots. 

Practical  Exercises 
1.     Transplating  Garden  Vegetables 

If  there  is  a  window-box  in  the  school,  in  which  are 
growing  seedlings  of  cabbage,  tomato,  or  other  vegetables 
to  be  transplanted,  let  each  pupil  transplant  a  few  of  the 
vegetables  to  the  school  garden.  Be  careful  to  follow 
the  principles  given  in  this  lesson.  If  there  is  no  school 
garden,  the  transplants  should  be  taken  home  and  set 
in  the  home  garden,  and  reports  made  in  school,  from 
time  to  time,  as  to  the  success  of  the  work. 
2.  Transplating  Wild  Flowers 

Let  each  pupil  find  some  thrifty-growing  wild  flower 
from  the  fields  or  woods,  transplant  it  to  some  pot  of 
good  soil  and  bring  to  the  school  room.  Explain  the 
causes  of  its  success  or  failure  to  live  and  grow. 


POTATOES  379 

In  connection  with  this  lesson,  each  pupil  might  bring 
some  shrub  or  small  tree  from  home  or  the  woods  to 
transplant  in  the  school  yard. 

Reference:     Farmers'  Bulletin,  No.  245. 


i 


LESSON  LXXVIII 

POTATOES 

On  our  farm  plan  in  Lesson  1,  we  have  one  acre  to 
plant  in  potatoes.  We  are  to  learn  something  in  this 
esson  about  potato  planting,  potato  culture,  and  potato 
pests. 

Potato  soil. — Light  sandy  soils,  rich  in  humus,  are  the 
best  soils  for  potatoes.  Heavy  clay  soils  interfere  with 
the  growth  of  the  potatoes  and  often  make  them  small. 
Soil  for  potatoes  should  be  deeply  plowed,  and  laid 
off  in  rows  about  three  feet  apart.  The  potatoes  should 
be  planted  from  four  to  five  inches  deep,  and  about 
eighteen  inches  apart  in  the  rows. 

Planting  potatoes. — There  is  much  difference  of 
opinion  as  to  the  method  of  cutting  the  potatoes  for 
planting.  Excellent  results  have  been  obtained  by  plant- 
ing the  whole  potato,  a  single  one  in  a  hill.  The  usual 
practice  recommended  is  to  cut  the  seed  potatoes  into 
halves  or  quarters,  at  least  two  eyes  to  a  piece,  using 
one  or  two  pieces  to  a  hill.  The  best  potatoes  should 
be  used  for  seed  and  not  the  small  discarded  ones.  A 
handful  of  bone  meal  should  be  dropped  into  the  bot- 
tom of  each  hill  and  covered  with  an  inch  of  soil  before 
placing  the  seed. 


2SO 


LESSONS    IN    AGRICULTURE 


Potato  culture. — After  the  potatoes  have  been 
planted,  and  before  they  come  up,  the  surface  mulch 
should  be  provided,  and  this  may  be  done  by  light  har- 
rowings.  Throughout  the  whole  period  of  cultivation 
the  weeds  should  be  kept  out,  the  dust  mulch  provided, 
and  shallow,  level  cultivation  maintained.  The  old  prac- 
tice of  ridging  the  potatoes  serves  to  expose  the  soil  to 


FIG.  85.     SPRAYING  POTATOES 

excessive  evaporation,   and   to   lessen   the  quality   and 
quantity  of  the  crop. 

Potato  pests. — The  Colorado  potato  beetle  is  the 
most  troublesome  potato  insect.  It  can  be  easily  killed 
by  spraying  with  three  pounds  of  arsenate  of  lead 
mixed  with  fifty  gallons  of  water,  or  four  ounces  of 
Paris  green  and  a  pound  of  lime  with  the  same  amount 


POTATOES  281 

of  water.  Either  poison  can  be  added  to  Bordeaux  mix- 
ture which  is  the  remedy  for  the  potato  diseases. 
Methods  of  treating  the  potato  scab  will  be  described  in 
the  practical  exercises. 

Practical  Exercises 
1.    Treating  Seed  Potatoes  to  Prevent  Scab 

The  day  before  the  lesson  is  to  be  given,  the  teacher 
should  ask  some  pupils  to  bring  about  a  peck  of  the 
scabbiest  potatoes  that  can  be  found.  The  teacher  should 
see  that  the  other  materials  are  provided  for  the  lesson. 

Place  the  potatoes  in  a  burlap  sack.  Into  a  tub  or 
barrel  pour  five  gallons  of  water.  To  this  add  about 
one-sixth  of  a  pint  of  formalin.  This  can  be  purchased 
at  any  drug  store  at  40  cents  a  pint.  Place  the  sack  of 


FIG.  86.     A  GOOD  POTATO  A  SCABBY  POTATO 

potatoes  in  the  tub  of  formalin  solution.  Allow  them 
to  soak  one  and  one-half  hours. 

(Experimental  work  of  this  lesson  will  have  to  end 
here.  If  there  is  a  school  garden,  the  work  as  outlined 
below  should  be  continued  at  school ;  if  none  the  teacher 
should  fully  explain  the  rest,  and  call  for  volunteer 
pupils  to  complete  the  experiment  at  home  and  report 
upon  i1:.) 

Remove  the  potatoes  from  the  solution,  and  cut  into 
pieces  for  planting.  Cut  the  potato  through  the  long 


282  LESSONS    IN    AGRICULTURE 

way,  and  then  divide  each  half.  Do  not  put  the  potatoes 
back  into  the  receptacle  that  has  had  in  it  scabby  po- 
tatoes. The  vessel  to  be  used  should  be  washed  with 
the  solution  in  the  tub. 

Plant  the  treated  tubers  in  rows  by  themselves,  and 
mark  with  stakes  the  rows  so  planted.  To  show  the 
comparative  results  of  the  treatment,  plant  the  same 
number  of  scabby  potatoes,  and  give  both  equal  care  and 
cultivation  throughout  the  season. 

When  the  potatoes  are  ripe,  dig  the  treated  and  un- 
treated separately.  Count  the  increase  in  the  treated 
potatoes.  A  careful  record  of  this  lesson  should  be  kept, 
including  the  cost  of  treatment,  the  price  of  potatoes, 
and  the  total  gain  from  the  treatment,  due  to  the  in- 
creased value  of  the  yield. 

It  would  be  a  good  service  to  the  district  if  pupils 
would  bring  all  their  scabby  potatoes  to  the  school  to  be 
treated,  before  planting.  Any  helpful  co-operation  be- 
tween the  school  and  the  home  is  of  incalculable  value 
to  both  institutions. 

Reference:     Farmers'  Bulletin,  No. 
Problems 

1.  If  the  average  weight  of  seed  potatoes  is  four 
ounces  each,  and  if  they  are  cut  in  halves  and  planted 
in  rows  three  feet  apart  and  eighteen  inches  apart  in 
the  row,  how  many  bushels  of  seed  will  be  required  per 
acre? 

2.  How  many  bushels  will  be  needed  if  whole  po- 
tatoes are  used?     Quarters?     Eighths? 

3.  Select  seven  potatoes  as  nearly  the  same  size  and 


TOMATOES 


28M 


shape  as  possible,  from  the  same  hill  or  similar  hills. 
Cut  one  potato  into  four  pieces  and  plant  each  piece 
in  a  hill;  this  will  make  four  hills.  Mark  these  four 
hills  "Plat  No.  1."  Cut  the  next  two  potatoes  length- 
wise into  halves;  plant  each  half  in  a  hill  and  mark 
these  four  "Plat  No.  2."  Plant  the  remaining  four 
potatoes  whole,  each  one  in  a  hill,  and  mark  these  ' '  Plat 
No.  3."  Give  the  same  care  and  cultivation  to  each  plant 
and,  when  they  have  matured,  dig  all  the  potatoes  care- 
fully and  weigh  the  yield  from  each  plat  and  tabulate 
as  follows: 


Amount  of  Seed 


No.  Pounds  of 
Yield 


Plat  No.   1 | 4  oz. 


Plat  No.  2 


8  oz. 


Plat  No.  3 I 16  02 


4.     See  problems  for  Lesson  12. 


LESSON  LXXTX 

TOMATOES 

Growing  popularity  of  tomatoes. — The  tomato  is  one 
of  our  most  popular  vegetables.  It  is  widely  grown 
as  a  market  crop,  and  is  used  for  canning  to  a  greater 
extent  than  any  other  vegetable.  The  demand  for 
fresh  fruit  the  year  round,  especially  in  large  cities, 
has  made  the  tomato  a  profitable  forcing-house  crop, 
and  many  experiments  by  the  stations  to  determine 


284 


I.KSSMNH    TN    AGRICULTURE 


best  varieties,  methods  of  culture,  etc.,  have  been  re- 
ported. 

Girls'  tomato  growing  and  canning  clubs. — Aiken 
County,  South  Carolina,  through  the  leadership  of  Miss 
Samuella  Cromer,  started  the  first  Girls'  Tomato  Club 


GIRLS'  TOMATO  CLUB 

in  this  country.  This  movement  is  only  a  little  over 
a  year  old  and  already  there  are  over  four  thousand 
members  of  the  clubs.  South  Carolina,  North  Carolina, 
Virginia,  West  Virginia,  Tennessee,  Mississippi,  and 
Georgia  have  Girls'  Tomato  Clubs. 

The  clubs  are  carried  on  in  this  manner:     Any  girl 
between  the  ages  of  nine  and  twenty  years,  in  the 


TOMATOES  285 

county  organized  may  become  a  member.  She  must 
plant  one-tenth  of  an  acre  in  tomatoes,  and  do  all  of  the 
work  connected  with  her  garden,  except  preparing  the 
soil  for  her  plants.  Prizes  are  offered  for  the  largest 
yield,  the  best  display  in  glass  jars,  best  essay  on  her 
garden  work,  largest  and  most  perfect  tomato,  neatest 
and  best  collection  of  tomato  recipes,  etc.  Canning 
parties  are  held  at  the  homes  of  the  girls,  and  the 
whole  work  becomes  an  inspiration  to  the  entire  com- 
munity. 

Some  requirements  in  tomato  culture. — A  clay  soil  is 
preferred  by  some  varieties  of  tomatoes,  and  a  sandy 
soil  by  others.  Deep  preparation  and  plenty  of  ma- 
nure will  make  good  tomatoes  on  almost  any  kind  of 
soil.  Too  much  manure  on  light  soil,  however,  may 
cause  the  plant  to  run  to  vine.  Sow  the  seed  in  the  hot- 
beds about  the  end  of  March,  and  transplant  the  plants 
into  small  pots  when  about  two  inches  high.  They 
should  not  be  set  out  until  the  temperature  is  likely  to 
stay  above  60°  F.  All  the  rules  of  transplanting  men- 
tioned in  Lesson  77  should  be  observed.  Set  the  plants 
three  feet  apart  in  rows  three  and  one-half  feet  apart. 
Thorough  cultivation,  loosening  the  soil  and  killing  the 
weeds,  is  necessary  until  the  plants  begin  to  spread  and 
cover  the  ground.  The  soil  should  then  be  drawn  up 
to  the  plants  in  hills  two  or  three  inches  high.  A 
strawy  mulch  over  the  ground,  or  some  support,  as  a 
trellis,  is  necessary  to  keep  the  fruit  off  the  ground. 

The  fruit  will  begin  to  ripen  in  August  and  should 
be  picked  as  fast  as  ripe.  The  plant  will  usually  con- 


286  LESSONS   IN    AGRICULTURE 

tinue  bearing  until  frost,  and  if  full-sized  green  to- 
matoes are  picked  and  placed  on  the  cellar  floor,  they 
will  usually  ripen.  Earliana,  Eclipse,  Acnn-.  I'mnli'i-osji. 
Yellow  Prince,  and  Best  of  All,  are  good  varieties. 

Practical  Exercises 
1      Experimenting  in  Tomato  Culture 
Procure  enough  tomato  plants  from  the  hot-bed  or 
from  any  source  available  to  set  out  a  plot  on  the  home 
grounds,  two  rods  by  one  rod.     Transplant  and  culti- 
vate as  directed  above.    When  the  vines  begin  to  branch 
and  blossom,  divide  your  plot  into  three  sections  and 
treat  each  section  as  follows : 

1.  Mulch  the  ground  about  the  plants  with  straw 
and  allow  them  to  fall  without  support. 

2.  Support  the  plants  with  some  sort  of  trellis  to 
which  they  are  tied,  and  prune  away  most  of  the  lower 
and  side  branches. 

3.  Allow  the  plants  to  fall  unpruned  and  unsup- 
ported on  the  bare  ground. 

Pick  the  ripened  tomatoes  from  each  section  all  sum- 
mer and  keep  a  record  of  the  quantity  and  quality  of 
the  yield  from  each.  Report  this  experiment  and  the 
results  to  the  school  next  autumn. 

S.    Organising   Girls'   Tomato   Clubs 

Write  to  the  Department  of  Agriculture  at  Wash- 
ington, D.  C.,  or  to  the  State  Agricultural  College  for 
plans  and  details  for  the  organization  of  a  Tomato 
Growing  and  Canning  Club.  Ask  your  teacher  to  help 
organize  a  Tomato  Club  in  the  school. 


PLANT  LEAVES 


28? 


LESSON  LXXX 

PLAXT    LEAVES 

Work  of  leaves.  —  The  main  object  to  be  brought  out 
in  the  study  of  this  lesson  is  the  great  work  that  leaves 
have  to  do,  and  the  important  relations  they  sustain  to 
the  life  of  the  plant. 

1.  Leaves  spread  out  a  great  surface  through  which 
the  plant  takes  in  oxygen,  necessary  for  its  life  and 
growth. 

2.  Through  this  expanded  leaf-surface  the  carbon- 
dioxide  gas  of  the  air  enters,  and  in  the  sunlight  the 
green  leaf  makes  plant  food  out  of  the  carbon-dioxide 
and  the  minerals  brought  up  in  solution  from  the  soil. 
As  one  result  of  this  process  in  the  leaf,  oxygen  is  set 
free. 

3.  After   the   leaf   has   used   all   the    food-material 
a  needed    from   the   sap-solu- 

tion brought  up  from  the 
soil  through  the  roots  and 
stem,  the  excess  of  water  is 
thrown  off  by  the  leaf.  This 
is  called  transpiration. 

A  great  amount  of  water 
is  passed  out  of  some  plants 
in  this  way.  In  the  corn 
plant  about  275  pounds  of 

water    are    Passed    through 

the  plant  for  each  pound  of 
dry  matter  in  the  corn.    In 
oats  almost  double  this  amount  of  water  is  handled  by 


FIG.   87. 


MAGNIFIED   SETION 

SBREEA°TFHi£r 


288  LESSONS    IN   AGRICULTURE 

the  plant.     These  are  the  three  principal  uses  ol  the 
leaves  to  the  plant. 

Leaves  make  our  food. — Plant  food  is  manufactured 
in  the  leaves  in  the  form  of  starch,  is  changed  to  sugar, 
and  with  other  nitrogenous  matter  in  solution,  is  sent 
to  the  various  parts  of  the  plant,  there  to  be  changed 
again  into  root,  stem,  leaf,  or  fruit.  We  ought  surely 
to  take  our  hats  off  to  the  leaves,  for  it  is  they  that  make 
possible  all  our  grain,  fruit,  vegetable,  and  flower,  all 
the  wood  and  all  the  food  we  have,  in  a  word  all  things 
useful  and  beautiful  are  made  by  the  leaves. 

Practical  Exercises 
1.     Transpiration  in  the  Leaf 

Take  a  plant  that  is  well  started  in  a  flower-pot,  a 
piece  of  cardboard,  and  two  glass  tumblers  large  enough 
to  cover  the  plant.  Cut  a  slit  in  the  cardboard  and 
draw  it  around  the  plant.  Seal  the  slit  so  that  no  mois- 
ture can  come  through  it  from  below.  Cover  the  plant 
with  the  glass,  and  allow  the  roots  to  extend  into  the 
water  of  the  glass  below.  Moisture  will  collect  on  the 
inner  surface  of  the  glass.  Where  does  it  come  from? 
Is  all  the  moisture  absorbed  by  the  roots  given  off  in  this 
way?  How  could  you  find  out?  Why  do  plants  need- 
water? 

2.     Forms  of  Leaves 

Collect  and  make  drawings  of  seven  different  shaped 
leaves. 

Leaves  like  the  locust  leaf  are  compound.  Those  like 
the  oak  are  simple.  Classify  your  leaves  as  to  whether 
they  are  simple  or  compound. 


THE   FLOWER 


289 


THE  FLOWER 

Use  of  the  flower. — However  much  the  flowers 
serve  to  beautify  the  world  and  increase  man's  enjoy- 
ment, that  is  not  their  chief  use.  The  fruit  of  the  plant 
bears  the  seed,  and  the  flower  produces  the  fruit.  That 
is  the  chief  duty  of  the  flower.  Every  plant  that  pro- 
duces seed  has  flowers. 

Structure  of  the  flower.— Let  us  see  what  a  flower 
is.  Take  for  example  a  buttercup,  cherry  blossom,  or 
the  violet.  You  will  find  on  the  outside  a  row  of  green 
leaves  enclosing  the  flower  when  it  is  still  a  bud.  These 

STIGMA- 
63     -S7/GMA 

Vl\\  \\\  W "A«T«£/?  /mj»         \ 

"sm£  Ml  *«*«-•  J»  "T 

..COROLLA 


--\-OVARY 


FIG.  88.     A  STAMEN  A  PISTIL  VERTICAL  SECTION  OF  TOMATO  BLOSSOM 

leaves  are  called  sepals.  Next  on  the  inside  is  a  row  of 
colored  leaves,  or  petals.  Arranged  inside  of  the  petals 
are  some  threadlike  parts,  each  with  a  knob  on  the  end. 
These  are  the  stamens.  Examine  one  stamen  closely. 
On  the  tip  of  its  knob  you  should  find,  if  the  flower  is 
fully  opened,  some  fine  grains  of  powder.  This  sub- 


290  LESSONS   IN   AGRICULTURE 

stance  is  called  pollen,  and  the  knob  on  the  end  in  which 
the  pollen  is  borne  is  called  the  anther.  The  pollen  is 
very  important  to  the  flower.  Without  it  there  could 
be  no  seed.  But  there  is  another  part  to  each  flower  that 
is  of  equal  value.  This  part  you  will  find  in  the  center 
of  the  flower,  inside  the  circle  of  stamens.  It  is  called 
the  pistil.  The  tip  of  the  pistil  is  the  stigma.  The  base 
of  the  pistil  forms  the  ovary.  If  you  carefully  cut  open 
this  ovary,  you  will  find  in  it  very  small  unripe  seed. 

In  the  corn  flower  and  many  others,  the  stamens  and 
pistils  are  separate  on  the  same  plant.  In  some  plants 
these  parts  occur  on  separate  individuals. 

Now  no  plant  can  bear  seeds  unless  the  pollen  of 
the  stamen  falls  upon  the  stigma.  The  wind  and  the 
insects  help  to  carry  the  pollen  to  the  stigma. 

Staminate  and  pistUlate  flowers. — Flowers  that 
have  both  stamens  and  pistils  are  called  perfect  flowers. 
Those  having  only  stamens  are  called  stamenate  flowers. 
Those  having  only  pistils  are  called  pistillate  flowers. 
Some  varieties  of  strawberries  have  individual  plants 
that  contain  the  stamenate  flowers  and  other  individuals, 
the  pistillate  flowers.  In  planting  such  varieties  it  is 
evident  that  both  kind  of  flowers  would  have  to  be  pro- 
vided, otherwise  the  plants  would  produce  no  berries. 
In  many  plants,  such  as  the  clovers  for  example,  the 
pollen  will  not  grow  into  the  pistil  of  the  same  flower, 
but  the  pistil  must  get  its  pollen  from  some  other  flower 
before  the  young  seeds  will  develop.  The  seed  of  corn 
is  often  mixed  because  the  wind  or  bees  carry  pollen 
from  different  varieties  to  the  silks  at  the  growing  ear. 


PLANT   STEMS  291 

The  tassel  of  the  corn  is  the  stamenate  flower,  and  the 
silks,  the  pistillate  flower. 

Practical  Exercises 
1.     The  Structure  of  the  Flower 

Get  specimens  of  three  or  four  different  kinds  of  flow- 
and  fill  out  the  following  table  from  your  observation 
of  each  flower: 


Name  of        | 
Flower 

, 

No.  of  Sepals 

i 
No.  of  Petals    l'         No.  of 
and  color       |       Stamens 

No.  of  Pistils 
Seeds 
many  or  few 

1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 

Make  a  drawing  of  each  of  the  parts  of  the  flower  and 
of  the  whole  flower. 

LESSON  LXXXII 

• 

PLANT  STEMS 

Purposes  of  stems. — In  our  studies  of  the  parts  of 
growing  plants  we  shall  learn  something  more  about 
plant  stems.  As  the  root  develops  from  the  base  of  the 
caulicle  in  the  embryo  of  the  seed,  the  plumule,  or  first 
shoot,  develops  from  the  other  end  and  becomes  the 
main  stem  of  the  plant.  Stems  serve  the  plants  three 
purposes:  (1)  They  support  the  branches  and  hold 
the  leaves  up  to  the  light.  (2)  They  conduct  the  water 
and  mineral  food  up  from  the  ground  to  the  leaves,  and 
the  starch  and  other  manufactured  food  materials  from 
the  leaves  down  to  the  roots  and  other  parts  of  the 
plant  wherever  needed.  (3)  They  serve  in  some  cases 
as  storehouses  for  the  reserve  food  of  the  plant. 


292  LESSONS   IN    AGRICULTURE 

Man  has  made  the  stems  of  plants  serve  him  in  other 
ways.  They  provide  him  with  lumber,  posts,  poles,  and 
fuel.  They  serve  in  ma"ny  cases  as  food,  and  indirectly 
furnish  materials  both  for  food  and  clothing. 

Stem  structure. — Unlike  the  root,  the  stem  is  devel- 
oped in  sections,  similar  in  a  way  to  the  stories  of  a 
building.  Each  section  or  story  consists  of  one  or  more 
leaves  attached  to  the  farthest  end  of  the  section.  The 
part  of  the  stem  to  which  the  leaves  are  attached  is  called 
the  node,  and  the  part  between  the  leaves  is  called  the 
internode.  The  nodes  are  the  points  where  the  lateral 
buds  are  formed,  and  the  internodes  elongate  causing 
the  growth  in  length  of  the  stem.  The  structure  of  the 
inside  of  stems  will  be  seen  in  the  practical  exercises 
to  follow. 

Habits  of  growth. — Plants  have  stems  that;  are 
erect,  standing  above  ground,  and  strong  enough  to  sup- 
port all  the  leaves  and  branches.  The  stems  of  other 
plants  are  twining,  or  lie  prostrate  upon  the  ground. 
The  stems  of  some  plants  are  entirely  underground, 
either  condensed  into  short  bulbs  or  running  like  root- 
stocks  for  a  considerable  length,  bearing  leaves  above 
ground  from  their  nodes.  Still  other  plants  are  with- 
out stems,  bearing  their  leaves  from  the  root  crowns. 

Practical  Exercises 
1.     Types  of  Stem  Structure 

Each  pupil  should  have  sections  about  six  inches  long, 
of  corn-stalk  and  of  a  twig  from  a  tree. 

Compare  the  cross  sections  of  the  two  stems.     Note 


PLANT   STEMS  293 

that  in  the  corn-stalk  the  woody  fibres  are  scattered 
irregularly  through  the  pith,  while  in  the  tree  stem 
the  wood  is  arranged  in  circles  around  the  pith.  Make 
drawings  of  the  cross  sections  to  show  this. 

Cut  the  stems  into  longitudinal  sections,  and  make 
drawings  to  show  the  arrangement  of  the  wood  and 
pith. 

These  two  kinds  of  stems  represent  the  two  great 
groups  of  flowering  plants  having  closed  seed  vessels — 
monocotyledons  and  dicotyledons.  The  corn  stem  be- 
longs to  the  former,  and  the  tree  stem  to  the  latter.  The 
grasses,  lilies,  palms,  etc.,  are  monocotyledons,  and  the 
trees,  most  of  the  weeds  and  grains  are  dicotyledons. 

2.    Field  Study  of  the  Corn  Plant 

Go  to  the  nearest  corn  field,  and  note  your  observa- 
tions on  the  following  points : 

1.  How   many   joints   and   how   many   blades   have 
formed  on  the  corn  stems? 

2.  Would  you  prefer  stalks  with  short  or  long  inter- 
nodes  ?    Why  ? 

3.  Why  do  stalks  grow  tall  and  slender  when  planted 
too  thickly? 

4.  If  the  ear  has  formed,  count  the  number  of  nodes 
above  and  below  it. 

5.  What  height  above  the  ground  would  you  think 
best  for  the  ear  to  be  ? 

6.  Note  how  the  blade  is  attached  to  the  stem. 

7.  Note  the  stem  above  the  last  node.     It  develops 
into  the  tassel. 


294  LESSONS    IN    AGRICULTURE 

3.    Habits  of  Stem  Growth 

Fill  out  the  table  below  with  several  examples  of  the 
kinds  of  stems  indicated : 

Stems  on  the  Basis  of  Habit  of  Growth 


Erect 

Twining 

ProBtrate 

UnderRr'und! 

i  •nndfriBi-il 
bulb  item 

Stemlfss 

1.  What  purposes  do  stems  serve  to  the  plant? 

2.  For  what  purposes  do  plant  stems  serve  man? 

3.  Name  the  other  parts  of  the  plant  attached  to 
the  stem. 


JUNE 

On  the  farm. — June  is  one  of  the  busiest  months  of 
the  year  on  the  farm.  The  work  is  not  so  varied,  but  it 
is  urgent  and  laborious.  There  are  persistent,  vigor- 
ously growing  weeds  to  contend  with,  insects  to  combat, 
corn  fields,  truck  patches,  and  gardens  to  cultivate,  and 
clover  and  alfalfa  to  cut. 

LESSON  LXXXIII 

WEEDS 

Weeds,  a  great  pest. — The  farmer's  life  is  a  contin- 
ual battle  against  the  enemies  of  his  crops.  He  must 
work  hard  to  combat  insect  pests  and  plant-diseases,  but 
harder  still  to  eradicate  the  weeds.  Any  plant  growing 
where  the  farmer  does  not  want  it  might  be  considered 
a  weed.  Weeds  are  objectionable  because  they  rob  other 
plants  of  their  food,  moisture,  and  sunlight. 

Classes  of  weeds. — Weeds  may  be  divided  into  three 
classes — annuals,  biennials,  and  perennials.  Annuals 
are  those  plants  that  go  to  seed  every  year,  and  die, 
coming  up  from  the  seed  year  after  year.  Pigweed, 
wild  mustard,  and  ragweed  are  examples  of  this  class. 
To  destroy  such  weeds,  prevent  them  from  going  to 
seed.  Biennials  are  plants  that  live  for  two  years.  They 
grow  up  from  the  seed  one  year  and  produce  a  heavy 
root.  The  next  year  they  grow  up  from  this  root,  pro- 

295 


296  LESSONS    IN    AGRICULTURE 

duce  seed  and  then  die.  To  destroy  this  class  of  weeds, 
pull  them  up  by  the  roots  the  first  year  or  prevent  them 
from  seeding  the  second  year.  Burdock,  bull  thistle, 
and  mullein  belong  to  this  class.  Perennials  are  those 
plants  that  seed  every  year  but  whose  roots  live  on  from 
year  to  year.  The  only  way  to  eradicate  the  perennials 
is  to  destroy  them  root  and  branch.  These  are  the  hard- 
est of  all  to  kill.  The  Canada  thistle,  ox-eye  daisy,  the 
fleabanes,  sorrel,  and  common  sour  dock  belong  to  this 
class.  When  such  weeds  are  allowed  to  spread  they  soon 
take  possession  of  the  farm. 

Practical  Exercises 

1.     Study  of  Field  Collections  of  Weeds 
Gather  six  or  seven  different  kinds  of  weeds — roots, 
stem,  leaf,  and  all — and  take  them  into  the  school  room 
for  study.    Answer  the  following  questions  regarding 
each  of  the  weeds  you  have  collected : 
Name  of  the  Weed 

1.  Kinds  of  soil  in  which  it  thrives  best. 

2.  Calculate  number  of  seeds. 

3.  How  are  the  seeds  scattered  ? 

4.  When  ripe? 

5.  At  what  time  in  the  growing  season  do  they  ger- 
minate ? 

6.  Does  the  young  plant  grow  rapidly  or  slowly? 

7.  What  kind  of  roots  does  the  plant  have  ? 

8.  When  you  cut  it  off  does  a  new  plant  come  from 
the  same  place? 

9.  Does  plowing  through  a  patch  of  weeds  increase 
their  number  ? 


WEEDS  297 

10.  Does  the  weed  have  any  natural  cheek,  such  as 
birds,  insects  or  live  stock  eating  the  foliage  ? 

11.  Weeds  can  be  killed  either  by  preventing  the 
formation  of  seeds,  or  by  preventing  the  growth  of  the 
foliage.    Which  of  these  methods  is  better  suited  to  the 
weed  in  hand? 

12.  What  garden  or  field  crop  does  this  weed  injure  ? 
How  does  it  injure  it  ? 

Write  the  names  of  twelve  different  kinds  of  weeds 
and  classify  as  to  whether  they  are  annual,  biennial,  or 
perennial. 

2.     Spraying  to  Kill  Weeds 

Dissolve  two  pounds  of  iron  sulphate  (copperas)  in  a 
gallon  of  water,  and  spray  over  a  patch  of  grass  and 
weeds.  Observe  results  after  twenty-four  hours  and 
note  which  weeds  are  killed. 

Free  Bulletins,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture 
Fanners'  Bulletins 

No.    28. — Weeds  and  How  to  Kill  Them. 

No.  188. — Weeds  Used  in  Medicine. 
Extracts 

No.  133. — Birds  as  Weed  Destroyers. 

Problems 

1.  If  a  clean  field  produces  60  bu.  of  corn  per  acre 
and  a  weedy  one  only  35  bu.  per  acre,  what  is  the  loss 
caused  by  weeds  with  corn  at  35  cents  per  bushel? 

2.  What  would  be  the  loss  on  a  20-acre  field  at  the 
same  rate? 

3.  For  how  many  days'  labor  at  $1  per  day  will  an 
amount  of  money  equal  to  this  loss  pay? 

4.  Suppose  it  required  only  four  days'  work  to  keep 


298 


LESSONS    IN    AGRICULTURE 


an  acre  free  from  weeds,  what  would  be  the  gain  per 
acre? 

5.  What  would  be  the  gain  on  a  24-acre  field  ? 

6.  Is  the  quality  of 
the  corn  from  a  weedy 
field    ever    so    good    as 
that  from  a  clean  field? 
Why? 

7.  Suppose     clean 
oats  produce  65  bu.  per 
acre    and    weedy    oats 
produce  only  48  bu.  per 
acre,    with    oats    at    30 
cents  per  bushel,  what 
is  the  loss  from  weeds? 
What  is  the  loss  on  a 
16-acre  field? 

8.  Are  oats  grown  in 
a  weedy  field  as  good  in 
quality  as  clean  grown 
oats  ?    Explain. 

9.  Give  several  rea- 
sons   for    weedy    oats. 
Can   weeds   in   oats   be 
easily    destroyed    after 
the  oats  are  sown?          a, 

10.  Will    crop    rota- 
tion prevent  weeds  in  oats?    What  is  a  good  crop  for 
oats  to  follow?    Why? 

11.  A  yield  of  300  bu.  of  potatoes  per  acre  would 
be  an  excellent  crop.  The  land  would  need  to  be  well  cul- 


Fio.  89.     WEED  LESSON. 
Amaranth ;    b,    crab    grass ;    c,    rag 
weed ;  d,  pigeon  grass. 


TEUCK    CROPS  399 

tivated  and  kept  free  from  weeds  to  produce  this.  Sup- 
pose but  140  bu.  are  grown  instead,  what  is  the  loss 
from  lack  of  labor?  At  25  cents  per  bushel  what  is  the 
money  value  of  this  loss? 

12.  For  how  many  days'  labor  at  $1.25  per  day  will 
an  amount  of  money  equal  to  this  loss  pay  ? 

13.  Suppose  only  twelve  days'  extra  labor  were  re- 


FIG.   90.     GRAIN   WEEDING  PLOTS 

quired  to  give  the  larger  yield,  how  much  would  be 
gained  ? 

14.     If  the  farmer  did  these  extra  twelve  days'  work 
himself,  what  would  he  get  per  day  for  his  time  ? 

LESSON  LXXXIV 

TEUCK  CEOPS 

During  the  month  of  June  the  harvesting  of  truck 
crops  again  calls  our  attention  to  the  vegetable  garden. 


300 


LESSONS    IX    AGRICULTURE 


On  our  forty-acre  farm  \ve  are  not  specializing  in  truck 
gardening,  and  we  shall  have  little  for  the  market  per- 
haps, but  our  tables  will  be.  abundantly  supplied  with 
new  and  fresh  vegetables. 

Profit  in  truck  crops. — Vegetables  grown  for  market 
are  called  truck  crops.  Many  farmers  in  all  sections 
of  the  country  are  finding  "truck  farming"  more  profit- 
able than  any  other.  Truck  gardening  combines  well 


FIG.  91.     ONION  HARVEST 

with  general  farming,  for  it  may  bring  money  returns 
before  and  after  the  standard  farm  crops  mature.  To- 
matoes, cabbage,  strawberries,  cantaloupes,  onions,  en- 
dive, beans,  sweet  corn,  asparagus,  peas,  and  beets  have 
all  been  found  profitable,  and  there  should  be  larger 
developments  in  the  trucking  business  in  the  future. 

General    requirements. — In    order    to    obtain    the 
earliest  vegetables,  and  thus  realize  most  profit  in  the 


TRUCK    CROPS  301 

trucking  business,  the  soil  should  be  light,  warm  and 
quick.  Truck  crops  require  heavy  applications  of  fer- 
tilizers. Cabbage  and  tomatoes  succeed  best  on  lands 
that  are  rich  in  humus,  hence  it  is  best  to  practice 
rotation  of  crops  and  include  a  cover  crop  of  cow  peas 
or  clover  to  turn  under,  or  to  apply  annually  an  ample 
supply  of  barnyard  manure.  Low  lands  are  usually 
richer  in  humus  than  uplands,  and  if  properly  drained, 
make  the  better  sites  for  truck  gardens. 

Every  truck  crop  demands  special  attention  and  treat- 
ment, and  details  cannot  be  given  here.  The  following 
bulletins  from  the  Department  of  Agriculture  treat  of 
special  truck  crops : 

NOTE.  The  only  practical  suggestion  to  offer  in  con- 
nection with  this  lesson  is  to  advise  every  boy  and  girl 
who  reads  it,  seriously  to  try  out  some  garden  vegetable 
for  the  profit  there  is  in  growing  and  marketing  it. 

Tree  Bulletins,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture 
Farmers'  Bulletins 

No.    35. — Potato  Culture. 

No.  354. — Onion  Culture. 

No.    52.— The  Sugar  Beet. 

No.    60. — Methods  of  Curing  Tobacco. 

No.    82. — The  Culture  of  Tobacco. 

No.    83.— Tobacco  Soils. 

No.  120.— The  Principal  Insect  Affecting  the. Tobacco  Plant. 

No.  129. — Sweet  Potatoes. 

No.    61. — Asparagus. 

No.    94. — Cabbage. 

No.  220.— Tomato. 

No.  282.— Celery. 

No.  359. — Canning  Vegetables. 

Problems 

1.  A  sugar  factory  agrees  to  pay  $4.50  per  ton  for 
all  beets  testing  14  per  cent,  or  less,  of  sugar.  They 


302  LESSONS    IN   AGRICULTURE 

also  agree  to  give  an  additional  25  cents  per  ton  for 
each  additional  1  per  cent  of  sugar  or  fraction  thereof 
over  14  per  cent,  if  the  fraction  exceeds  one-half  per 
cent.  "What  is  the  price  of  beets  testing  13.7  per  cent? 
14  per  cent?  14.3  per  cent?  14.7  per  cent?  15  per 
cent  ?  15.2  per  cent  ?  15.6  per  cent  ?  15.8  per  cent  ? 

2.  Mr.  Smith's  beets  yield  fourteen  tons  per  acre 
and  test  15  per  cent.     How  much  does  he  get  per  acre 
for  his  crop  ? 

3.  On  two  acres  of  ground  Mr.  Jones  raises  73,680 
pounds  of  beets  which  test  14.8  per  cent.     How  much 
do  his  beets  bring  him  in  money  per  acre? 

4.  If  Mr.  Jones  spends  $56  worth  of  labor  on  his 
crop  of  beets,  what  is  his  net  profit  per  acre? 

5.  How  many  onion  plants  will  be  required  to  set 
an  acre   in   rows   two   feet  apart,   plants   four   inches 
apart  in  the  row? 

6.  If  a  boy  can  set  nine  plants  per  minute,  how  long 
will  it  take  him  to  set  them? 

7.  If  these  onions  average  four  ounces  each,  how 
many  bushels  are  raised  on  an  acre?     If  they  average 
six  ounces?    Twelve  ounces?    One  pound? 

8.  What  is  the  value  of  the  crop  in  each  case,  at 
60  cents  per  bushel? 

9.  If  it  requires  fifty  days  of  a  boy's  time,  worth 
75  cents  per  day,  to  raise  an  acre  of  onions,  what  will 
be  his  profit  on  an  acre  of  four-ounce  onions? 


303 

LESSON  LXXXV 
THE    VALUE    OF    BIRDS    TO    AGRICULTURE 

Bird  life. — We  can  not  be  long  upon  the  farm  in 
June  without  noting  the  joyous  life  of  the  birds.  They 
are  busy  from  dawn  to  dark,  building  their  nests  and 
feeding  their  nestlings.  Nothing  disturbs  them  except 
the  heartless  cat  and  the  occasional  thoughtless  boy,  who 
has  not  yet  learned  the  great  service  the  birds  render 
to  the  farmer.  The  native  birds  are  one  of  the  nation's 
most  valuable  assets.  If  the  birds  were  destroyed,  in  a 
very  few  years  the  insects  would  have  multiplied  to  such 
an  extent  that  our  trees  would  be  defoliated,  and  our 
crops  destroyed.  This  is  not  fancy,  but  plain  facts. 

Birds  and  insects. — It  has  been  found  by  observa- 
tion and  dissection  that  a  Cuckoo  consumes  daily  from 
50  to  400  caterpillars,  and  that  a  Chickadee  will  eat  from 
200  to  500  insects  or  up  to  4000  insect  eggs.  One  hun- 
dred insects  a  day  is  a  small  estimate  of  the  quantity 
consumed  by  insect  eating  birds,  and  most  of  our  birds 
are  insect  eaters.  Not  only  do  they  destroy  great  num- 
bers of  insects,  but  they  eat  great  quantities  of  weed 
seeds  as  well.  The  State  of  Illinois  loses  annually  about 
$20,000,000  by  the  ravages  of  insects. 

It  is  the  duty,  and  it  should  be  the  pleasure,  of 
every  citizen  to  do  all  in  his  power  to  protect  these  val- 
uable birds,  and  to  encourage  them  to  remain  about  our 
homes. 


304 


LESSONS    IN    AGRICULTURE 


Practical  Exercises 

1.    Observational  Studies  of  Birds  About  tJie  Farm 

Each  pupil  in  the  class  should  take  a  walk  alone. 

along  the  lanes  and  about  the  fields  and  orchards  at 

home.    Take  a  note-book  and  pencil  and  walk  quietly  and 

unconcernedly  looking  among  the  trees,  bushes,  fences. 


FIG. 


BLACK-THROATED    WARBLER 


and  on  the  ground  for  the  birds.  Prepare  the  following 
outline  to  guide  you  in  your  observations,  and  from 
which  to  make  report  to  the  school  for  this  lesson : 


Birds  observed. 

What  the  bird  w&s  doing. 

What  it  eats. 

Color. 

Where  it 

nests. 


FARMERS'  FRIENDS 


VALUE   OF  BIRDS   TO   AGRICULTURE 


305 


2.     Bird  Boxes 
Each  pupil  should  make  a  bird  box,  according  to  some 

design  of  his  own  choosing,  and  bring  it  to  school  to 
show  .the  teacher  and  the  rest  of  the  class.  Take  the 
box  home  and  put  it  up  out  of  reach  of  the  cat  in  some 
attractive  place  where  the  birds  can  build  in  it.  It 


FIG.    93.     MARYLAND   YELLOW-THROAT 

would  be  well  to  make  some  bird  boxes  for  the  school 
yard  also. 

Problems 

1.  Suppose  that  the  damage  from  insects  in  your 
state  is  25c  an  acre.  How  much  would  that  be  for  the 
whole  state? 


306  LESSONS   IN   AGRICULTURE 

2.  If  there  were  three  birds  on  every  acre,  how  many 
birds  would  there  be  in  this  state? 

3.  If  each  bird  eats  25  insects  a  day  (a  very  low  esti- 
mate), how  many  insects  would  be  destroyed  in  this 
state  during  the  months  of  June,  July,  and  August  t 

4.  If  120,000  insects  fill  a  bushel  basket,  how  many 
bushels  of  insects  would  the  birds  eat  during  the  summer 
from  the  above  estimate? 

5.  Suppose  that  one-fourth  of  the  birds  in  this  state, 
as  calculated  above,  would  eat  one-fourth  of  an  ounce 
of  seed  daily,  how  many  pounds  of  weed  seeds  would 
our  birds  destroy  in  three  months? 

The  forces  that  work  against  the  increase  of  bird  life 
are :  man ;  the  climatic  elements ;  accidents ;  cats ;  other 
animals;  birds  of  prey,  and  snakes.  How  can  we  help 
the  birds  in  their  struggle  against  these  enemies  ?  Each 
one  of  us  can  do  something,  and  every  time  we  save  the 
life  of  one  bird,  we  have  not  only  done  a  kindness  to  the 
creatures  we  should  love,  but  we  have  rendered  service 
to  the  cause  of  agriculture.  Have  you  read  Longfel- 
low's poem  entitled,  "The  Birds  of  Killingworth " ? 

Reference:     Farmers'  Bulletin,  No.  54. 

LESSON  LXXXVI 

THE  TOAD,  THE  FARMER'S  FRIEND 

The  toad  and  insects. — In  addition  to  the  birds, 
about  which  we  studied  in  the  last  lesson,  the  farmer  has 
another  valued  friend  in  the  common  toad.  All  through 
the  summer  the  toad  is  eating  the  harmful  insects  from 
our  yards,  gardens,  truck-patches,  and  fields.  The  toad 


THE   TOAD— FARMERS'   FRIEND  307 

does  more  to  rid  the  garden  and  field  of  noxious  insects 
than  any  one  species  of  bird,  and  he  has  solved  the  prob- 
lem of  insecticides  better  than  man  with  all  his  bungling 
spray-machines. 

The  home  of  the  toad. — The  toad  has  a  "homeing 
instinct,"  and  should  be  placed  in  yards,  gardens,  and 


Courtesy  E.  F.  Bigelow,  Sound  Beach,  Conn. 
FIG.  94.     THE  TOAD  IN  His  HOME 

fields,  and  become  one  of  our  most  valued  domestic  ani- 
mals. A  little  stone  house,  containing  a  shallow  jar  of 
water  will  furnish  an  attractive  home  for  the  toad  in  the 
garden,  and  he  will  go  forth  at  night  like  the  lubber 
fiend,  to  do  our  tasks  while  we  sleep. 

The  toad  a  harmless  creature. — Laws  should  be 
passed  preventing  the  small  boy  from  killing  all  the 
toads  he  cares  to.  The  toad  is  absolutely  harmless,  and 
the  old  wart  superstition  is  mere  "bosh,"  and  its  ugli- 


;}08  LESSONS    IN    AGRlfTI.Tri;K 

ness,  so-called,  becomes  transformed  into  real  beauty, 
when  we  see  its  great  service  in  the  economy  of  nature. 
The  fact  that  the  toad  sometimes  gets  into  wells,  re- 
flects on  the  thriftless  methods  of  the  man  who  leaves 
his  wells  open,  rather  than  upon  the  thirst  of  the 
poor  toad,  which  falls  in,  in  its  search  for  the  water  that 
the  man  should  provide  for  it.  In  these  days  of  increas- 
ing insect  pests,  it  behooves  us  to  encourage  and  protect 
all  of  the  natural  enemies  of  our  plant  destroyers,  and 
a  few  toads  in  a  garden  will  go  far  toward  controlling 
the  cut  worms,  caterpillars,  and  the  leaf-eating  beetles. 

A  plea  for  the  toad. — The  toad  is  an  animal  full  of 
vital  interest  from  its  egg  stage,  through  the  tad-pole  de- 
velopment, to  the  adult,  and  the  horror  and  disgust  witli 
which  this  harmless  beneficial  friend  is  viewed  by  many 
boys  and  girls  should  be  changed  to  intelligent  sympathy 
and  active  appreciation  in  its  behalf. 
Practical  Exercises 
1.     Watching  the  Toad  Eat 

The  day  before  this  lesson  is  to  be  given,  the  teacher, 
with  the  pupils'  assistance,  should  have  a  box  about  a 
cubic  foot  in  size,  screened  off  on  two1  opposite  sides 
with  common  door-screening,  and  a  little  hinged  door  of 
some  sort  made,  through  which  the  toads  and  insects 
may  be  put  into  the  box. 

Place  two  toads  in  the  box  on  the  evening  before  the 
lesson,  and  they  will  be  hungry  enough  to  "show  off" 
well  for  the  class.  Announce  the  plan  beforehand,  and 
ask  the  pupils  to  bring  in  flies,  bugs,  butterflies,  cater- 
pillars, worms,  beetles,  etc. 


CUTTING   CLOVER   AND   ALFALFA  3Q9 

When  the  lesson  is  ready  to  begin,  place  the  box  be- 
fore the  class,  put  all  the  insects  in  with  the  toads,  and 
watch  them  eat.  Such  an  interesting  sight  the  pupils 
seldom  see.  The  insects  disappear  as  if  by  magic, 
snapped  in  by  the  toad's  long  tongue  with  lightning 
rapidity.  Have  some  pupil  count  how  many  insects  the 
toad  eats  during  the  recitation  time. 

Place  one  toad  in  the  glass  tumbler,  cover  with  a 
mosquito  netting  and  pass  it  around  among  the  pupils, 
so  that  all  can  see  the  beautiful  eyes — "the  fabled  jewel" 
in  the  toad's  head. 

LESSON  LXXXVII 

CUTTING  CLOVER  AND  ALFALFA 

It  is  during  the  second  year  of  our  red  clover  field, 
and  the  third  or  fourth  year  of  the  alfalfa  stand,  and 
we  must  begin  to  harvest  these  crops  this  month. 

Values  of  clover. — Next  to  alfalfa,  red  clover  is  one 
of  the  most  valuable  forage  crops  for  stock  feeding.  Al- 
most every  farm  animal  is  benefited  by  the  feeding  of 
red  clover.  Its  merits  in  this  respect  are  not  fully  ap- 
preciated as  a  farm  crop.  It  is  valuable  as  hay,  as  a 
soiling  crop,  and  as  a  green  manure  crop ;  its  roots  ren- 
der the  soil  open  and  porous,  and  richer  in  nitrogen. 

Making  clover  hay. — Clover  should  be  cut  when  free 
from  moisture,  and  when  about  one-third  of  the  blos- 
soms have  begun  to  turn  brown.  At  this  time  the  clover 
will  make  the  most  nutritious  hay.  The  clover  is  cut 
and  allowed  to  lie  in  the  swath  until  almost  dry,  when 


310 


LESSONS    IN    AGRICULTURE 


it  is  raked  into  windrows,  and  allowed  to  dry  more. 
Then  the  windrows  are  gathered  into  piles  or  hay-cocks. 
These  may  stand  in  the  field  a  day  or  two  or  be  hauled 
to  the  stack  or  barn  at  once.  It  should  be  the  aim  of 
the  farmer  to  save  all  the  leaves  of  the  clover  possible, 
for  they  contain  much  food  material.  Rains  and  dews 
are  injurious  to  the  crop  while  curing,  quickly  changing 
the  color  of  the  leaves  to  a  dark  brown,  and  soon  de- 


m 


FIG.  95.     ALFALFA 


stroying  the  rich  aroma  from  the  oils  which  make  clover 
so  palatable  and  attractive.  Red  clover  furnishes  ex- 
cellent pasture  for  stock  of  all  kinds,  but  the  result  of 
this  practice  is  usually  the  destruction  of  the  plants. 

Harvesting  alfalfa. — Alfalfa  is  harvested  for  hay  in 
a  similar  manner  to  clover.  It  is  cut  when  about  one- 
fifth  of  the  heads  are  in  blossom.  As  soon  as  cut  new 
growth  starts  up,  and  in  a  few  weeks  it  can  be  cut  again 


AGEICULTURAL  IMPROVEMENT  311 

for  hay.     Usually  three  or  four  crops  «an  be  cut  from 
the  same  field  in  a  season.    The  hay  is  cured  in  the  same 
way  as  clover,  but  more  care  needs  to  be  taken  to  save 
the  leaves,  as  they  drop  off  easily  as  soon  as  dry. 
Problems 

1.  Ask  some  farmer  how  many  tons  of  clover  hay  an 
acre  should  yield,  and  calculate  the  yield  for  ten  acres. 
What  price  would  the  clover  hay  from  ten  acres  bring 
if  sold  at  the  market  rate  ? 

2.  Find  the  number  of  tons  in  a  rick  of  clover  hay, 
25  feet  long,  10  feet  wide,  and  40  feet  over? 

3.  Find  the  number  of  tons  in  a  mow,  40  feet  long, 
25  feet  wide,  and  12  feet  high. 

4.  How  many  tons  of  hay  will  your  father's  barn  on 
the  farm  at  home  hold? 

NOTE.     To  find  the  number  of  tons  of  hay : 

In  mow.     Multiply  together  the  height,  length  and 

breadth  in  feet,   and  divide  the  product  by  450   for 

timothy,  and  by  600  for  clover  hay. 
In  rick.    Multiply  the  length  by  the  breadth  and  that 

product  by  one  half  the  difference  between  the  breadth 

and  the  distance  over.    This  will  give  cubic  feet.    Divide 

as  above  to  find  the  number  of  tons. 

References:      Farmers'    Bulletin,    No.    278.      Clover   Farming, 
Wallace. 

LESSON  LXXXVIII 

FIVE  LINES  OF  AGRICULTUEAL  IMPROVEMENT 

Out-line  Eeview 

Since  June  is  one  of  the  best  months  for  many  of  the 
improvements   suggested  by   the   outline   given   below, 


312  l.KSSONS  IN  AGRICULTURE 

this  lesson  is  inserted  at  this  point  as  a  review  outline. 
Pupils  should  study  the  following  outline  until  they  are 
able  to  reproduce  it: 

1.    Seed  Improvement 

1.  Selection  for: 

a.  Purity. 

b.  Trueness  to  type. 

c.  Viability. 

d.  General  vigor. 

2.  Testing  for : 

a.  Germination. 

b.  Vigor  of  growth. 

3.  Plant  breeding. 

2.  Lire  Stock  Improvement 

1.  Use  of  pure  breeds. 

2.  Proper  care  and  feeding. 

3.  Soil  Culture  Improvement 

1.  Drainage. 

2.  Tillage. 
3.'  Manuring. 

4.  Fertilizing. 

5.  Liming. 

6.  Crop  rotation. 

4.    Checking  the  Waste 

1.  In  fruit-growing  by: 

a.  Spraying. 

b.  Pruning,  tillage,  etc. 

2.  In  forests  by : 

a.  Checking  fires. 


AGEICULTURE    JMPKOVEMENT  313 

b.  More  careful  lumbering. 

3.  In  field  crops  by: 

a.  Use  of  good  seed. 

b.  Good  cultivation. 

4.  In  manures  and  fertilizers  by: 

a.  Spreading    manures    often    or    preventing    its 
leaching  away. 

b.  Using  only  the  fertilizers  needed. 

5.  In  live  stock  and  feeding  by : 

a.  Having  pure-bred  stock. 

b.  Intelligent  care  in  handling. 

c.  Feeding  balanced  rations  of  good  standards  and 
not  buying  patent  medicines  and  feeds. 

6.  In  human  efforts  by : 

a.  Knowledge  and  practice  of  scientific  agriculture. 

5.     Country  Life  Organisations 

1.  Boys'  and  girls'  agricultural  clubs. 

2.  The  grange. 

3.  Consolidated  schools. 

4.  Country  churches. 


JULY 

On  the  farm. — This  is  the  month  of  wheat  harvest 
and  hay-making.  The  orchard  is  to  be  sprayed  again  to 
check  the  second  brood  of  codling  moths  and  spread  of 
various  fruit  rots.  The  catalpa  grove  and  young  orchard 
should  be  sown  to  cow  peas  or  some  other  legume.  Such 
succession  crops  as  beans,  cabbage,  peas,  lettuce,  radishes, 
turnips,  etc.,  may  be  planted  in  the  garden  this  month. 

LESSON  LXXXIX 

ROADS  AND  ROAD-MAKING 

Perhaps  the  best  time  of  the  year  to  make  roads  and 
improve  the  old  ones  is  in  the  spring  season,  but  there 
are  certain  improvements  which  can  profitably  be  made 
in  July  and  August.  Working  the  roads  late  in  autumn 
or  in  winter  is  not  advisable,  because  they  will  not  get 
settled,  and  will  remain  bad  all  winter. 

Good  roads  and  country  life. — Our  life  in  the  country 
will  never  be  as  attractive  as  it  ought  to  be  until  we 
have  good  roads.  Bad  winter  roads  that  keep  the 
young  people  in  their  homes  for  many  months,  cause 
them  to  grow  to  dislike  the  country,  and  to  join  that 
throng  of  restless  humanity  moving  steadily  toward  the 
cities.  Will  not  the  young  people  who  love  their  coun- 
try homes  enter  into  this  crusade  for  better  roads? 

314 


ROADS    AND    ROAD-MAKING  315 

All  industrial  interests  are  affected  by  the  nature 
and  condition  of  the  country  roads,  over  which  the 
products  of  the  farm  are  transported  to  market,  but  it 
is  the  farmer  who  suffers  most  from  the  inferior  roads 
— which  constitute  so  large  a  percentage  of  the  road 
system  of  the  United  States.  Over  our  country  roads 


FIG.  96.     A  BAD  ROAD 

there  are  annually  hauled  at  least  250,000,000  tons.  A 
system  of  better  roads  would  reduce  the  cost  of  hauling 
this  volume  of  freight  one-half  or  two-thirds  of  what  it 
now  costs.  Following  are  some  of  the  values  of  good 
roads. 

1.  A  direct  saving  in  dollars  and  cents.    How? 

2.  A  saving  of  time. 

3.  Makes  country  life  more  desirable.     How? 


316 


I.KSSoNS   IN    ACRKTLTURE 


4.  Makes  school  and  church  attendance  more  con- 
venient. 

5.  More  humane  to  horses. 

6.  Helps  every  industry  of  the  city.    Why  ? 

As  a  part  of  the  preparation  of  this  lesson,  each 
pupil  should  write  a  brief  essay  upon  one  of  these 
topics. 


FIG.  97.     Ax  IMPROVED  ROAD 
Points  in  the  Construction  of  a  Good  Eoad 

1.  A   level   road   or  gradual   grade,   whenever  pos- 
sible. 

2.  The  road  bed,  highest  in  the  middle  and  sloping 
to  each  side,  having  a  fall  of  one  inch  to  three  or  four 
feet. 

3.  Under-drains    in    wet    places,    and    side-ditches 


ROADS    AND    ROAD-MAKING  317 

to  carry  off  surface  water  should  furnish  the  drainage 
necessary  for  good  roads.  Water,  standing  or  run- 
ning, in  roads  is  the  great  destroyer  of  good  roads. 

4.  The  surface  should  be  hard  and  smooth.     A  good 
surface  is  made  by  putting  a  layer  of  larger  stones  at 
the  bottom,  a  layer  of  smaller  stones  next,  and  crushed 
stone  or  gravel  as  the  top  layer. 

5.  Ordinary  earth  roads  can  be  improved  by  proper 
grading  and  drainage.     The  best  time  to  do  this  is  in 
the  spring  after  the  ground  is  settled. 

6.  Drains  should  be  kept  open,  and  all  depressions 
filled. 

Pupils  should  write  a  paragraph  on  one  of  these 
topics  in  their  note-books. 

Practical  Exercises 
1.     Constructing   a  Road 

For  the  second  part  of  this  lesson  it  might  be  pos- 
sible at  the  school  to  construct  a  path  from  the  school 
house  to  some  desired  point  a  few  rods  away,  accord- 
ing to  the  best  principles  of  road-making. 

If  some  of  the  larger  boys  or  some  school  patron 
would  furnish  a  few  loads  of  coarse  stone,  a  few  loads 
of  gravel,  a  plow  and  a  team  for  a  few  hours,  an  inter- 
esting and  profitable  demonstration  of  good  road-mak- 
ing could  be  made  at  the  school. 

1.  Select  the  line  for  the  road  or  walk. 

2.  Measure   off  a   space   six   feet   wide,   the   entire 
length    of  the  walk  to  be  constructed,  and  mark  it  with 
stakes. 

3.  Plow  up  the  whole  area,  turning  it  toward  the 


318  LESSONS  IN  AGRICULTURE 

middle.  Then  with  spades  or  a  scraper,  if  the  space 
is  large,  grade  it  up  from  the  sides  to  the  center,  so 
that  the  center  is  about  one  inch  higher  than  the  level 
of  the  ground  where  it  is  not  plowed. 

4.  Place  a  layer  of  coarse  stones  over  this  surface 
next,  and  a  layer  of  gravel  or  finer  stones  over  the 
coarser  stones.     Smooth   it  all  over  so  that  the  walk 
gradually  slopes  from  the  center  to  the  ditch  left  at 
the  side  by  the  plow's  furrow. 

5.  The  walk  is  now  ready  for  use.     The  side  ditch 
or  drain  should  be  kept  open,  and  the  roadbed  proper- 
ly graded. 

References:     Farmers'  Bulletin,  Nos.  136  and  338. 

Problems 

1.  Find  out  how  much  tax  your  father  pays  for  the 
roads  of  the  county.    "What  is  the  rate  of  road  tax  in 
your  county  or  state? 

2.  Learn    from    some    citizen    or    from    your    Road 
Commissioner  his  estimate  of  the  cost  of  constructing 
a  mile  of  gravel  or  crushed  stone  road  in  your  section, 
and  then  determine  what  it  would  cost  to  build  such 
a  road  on  all  the  main  lines  of  the  school  district. 

LESSON  XC 
TIMOTHY   HAY 

Time  for  harvest. — Very  soon  after  the  wheat  har- 
vest is  over  the  timothy  hay  will  be  ready  for  cutting. 
We  have  five  acres  on  our  farm,  and  we  shall  expect  at 
least  three  tons  per  acre.  Some  farmers  say  that  timothy 


TIMOTHY    HAY 


319 


hay  should  be  cut  just  as  it  is  coming  into  blossom,  others 
say  to  wait  until  the  blossoms  have  all  fallen.  We  shall 
cut  our  hay  when  the  blossoms  are  beginning  to  fall. 

General  requirements  for  meadow. — Timothy  does 
well  on  rather  heavy  soils  like  clay  and  humus  loams. 
It  also  does  well  on  muck  soils,  but  it  is  likely  to  become 
too  coarse  stemmed.  The  seed  of  timothy  is  usually  sown 


FIG.   98. 


TIMOTHY   HAY   AT   WEST  VIRGINIA  EXPERIMENT   STATION — 
FIVE  TONS  PER  ACRE 


in  autumn  with  wheat  or  rye.  After  the  grain  is  cut  the 
timothy  occupies  the  field,  and  the  next  year  is  cut  for 
hay.  It  may  be  used  several  years  for  hay,  especially 
if  top  dressed  in  the  spring  with  stable  manure.  Timothy 
may  be  sown  alone  in  the  fall  on  well  prepared  land.  A 
bushel  of  seed  is  used  for  about  six  acres  of  land.  In 
practice  timothy  is  often  grown  with  red  clover.  A  re- 
cent practice  of  many  farmers  is  to  sow  both  timothy  and 


LKSSONS  IN   .M;I;I«  ITLTUBE 


clover  seed  together  late  in  the  summer.  When  sown 
in  this  way,  a  fall  crop  of  hay  is  secured  the  following 
season. 

Meadow  grasses. — Timothy  hay  is  cut  with  a 
mower,  allowed  to  cure  in  the  swath,  raked  into  wind- 
rows, and  later  into  hay -cocks,  from  which  to  be  stacked 


FIG.  99.     A  HAYING  SCENE 

or  stowed  in  the  mow.  Other  good  hay  grasses  are  or- 
chard grass,  red  top,  millet,  etc.,  and  all  these  are  en- 
riched by  the  legumes  in  combination.  The  legumes  in 
combination  with  the  other  hay  grasses,  help  to  maintain 
the  meadow's  fertility,  and  to  bring  it  to  a  higher  yield. 


PASTURES  321 

Problems 

1.  How  much  would  the  hay  from  our  five-acre  field 
bring  if  placed  on  the  market  at  the  prevailing  price  ? 

2.  Ascertain   how   much   stable   manure    should   be 
spread  upon  our  meadow  as  a  top  dressing  after  the  hay 
is  cut. 

3.  Write  a  list  of  the  different  grasses  and  legumes 
used  as  hay. 


LESSON  XCI 

PASTURES 

Pastures  need  attention. — While  we  are  working 
with  meadows  and  hay  we  shall  try  to  learn  something 
about  pastures.  It  is  well  known  that  the  ordinary  pas- 
ture throughout  the  country  receives  very  little  atten- 
tion and  is  of  little  value  when  compared  with  other 
farm  lands.  With  proper  seeding  and  care  the  pasture 
might  be  made  as  valuable  as  any  other  part  of  the 
farm.  Mr.  McClennan,  of  the  New  York  States  Col- 
lege farm,  states  that  in  several  of  the  European  coun- 
tries land  valued  at  from  $2,000  to  $3,000  per  acre  has 
been  kept  in  pasture  for  generations  and  at  a  profit,  be- 
cause it  is  intelligently  seeded  and  properly  treated.  It 
is  entirely  practical  to  re-seed  pastures  with  any  kind  of 
grass  desired  without  breaking  up  the  soil  or  injuring 
the  sod. 

Grasses  for  pasture. — Good  pasture  land  should  be 
seeded  with  such  variety  of  grasses  as  will  supply  plenty 


382 


LESSONS  IN  A<5RI<  PI/TUBE 


of  food  for  the  stock  from  early  spring  to  late  fall.  Mr 
McClennan  gives  the  following  grasses  for  permanent 
pasture :  "A  mixture  of  seed  containing  4  pounds  of  or- 
chard grass,  4  pounds  of  meadow  fescue,  3  pounds  of 
tall  oat  grass,  2  pounds  of  timothy,  2  pounds  of  alsike 


FIG.  100.     THE  FASTI- UK 

clover,  and  2  pounds  of  white  clover.  Total,  24  pounds. ' ' 
The  purpose  of  combining  all  these  grasses  in  one  field 
is  to  have  plants  ripening  at  various  periods  throughout 
the  season,  and  adapting  themselves  to  varying  soil  con- 
ditions. The  above  mixture  would  not  be  suitable  for 
meadow  purposes,  because  none  of  the  plants  would  de- 
velop and  ripen  together.  In  limestone  regions  the  Ken- 
tucky blue  grass  furnishes  a  permanent  and  ideal  pas- 
ture throughout  the  entire  season.  Mr.  W.  D.  Zinn,  of 


DRY    FARMING  323 

Philippi,  West  Virginia,  has  been  of  great  service  to 
farmers  of  this  country  through  his  Pasture  Clubs,  or- 
ganized for  mutual  helpfulness  in  the  improvement  of 
pastures. 

Problems 

1 .  How  much  seed  would  be  needed  to  renew  the  pas- 
ture on  our  forty-acre  farm,  using  the  amount  quoted 
above  on  each  acre  ? 

2.  How  many  head  of  stock  should  we  allow  on  our 
pasture,  if  in  good  average  condition  of  growth  ? 

3.  Examine  the  pastures  at  home  and  report  how 
much  stable  manure  it  will  require  to  cover  the  bare 
and  poor  spots,  at  the  rate  of  six  tons  per  acre. 

4.  Make  a  list  of  the  pasture  grasses  grown  in  your 
community. 

References:  Farmers'  Bulletin,  No.  66.  Forage  Crops  Other 
Than  Grasses. — Shaw.  Elements  of  Agriculture. — Warren. 

LESSON  XCII 

DRY   FARMING 

The  problem. — At  this  season  of  the  year  the  farm- 
er's crops  are  most  likely  to  suffer  from  dry  weather. 
During  the  summer  the  plants  are  making  heavy  drafts 
upon  the  earth's  moisture,  and  the  hot,  dry  atmosphere 
is  evaporating  all  the  water  and  moisture  exposed  to  it. 
In  certain  semi-arid  sections  of  the  country  the  farmers 
have  met  this  problem  of  conserving  moisture  by  a  sys- 
tem known  as  "dry  farming."  It  has  been  demonstrated 
that  a  certain  amount  of  water  is  indispensable.  To  pro- 
duce a  single  pound  of  dry  substance  in  wheat.  1.200 


324  LESSONS  IN  AGRICULTURE 

pounds  of  water  are  necessary.  It  would,  therefore,  be 
impossible  to  produce  a  crop  year  after  year  on  the  same 
dry  area.  The  question  is  not  one  of  fertility  of  soil,  but 
of  conservation  of  moisture. 

The  conservation  of  moisture. — By  the  system  of 
dry  farming  the  solution  of  the  problem  consists  in  sum- 
mer fallowing  of  the  land,  which  means  that  the  ground 
is  plowed  as  deep  as  possible  and  left  to  rest  and  absorb 
all  the  rainfall  it  can.  A  person  with  a  two-hundred 
acre  farm  would  by  this  method  use  only  one-half  of  his 
land  at  a  time  for  crops  and  allow  the  other  half  to 
lie  fallow.  A  crop  every  year  on  all  the  land  would 
hopelessly  dry  up  all  the  soil.  In  addition  to  the  deep 
plowing  and  summer  fallowing,  a  loose  surface  mulch 
must  be  kept  over  the  fields  to  prevent  the  moisture  from 
evaporating.  In  this  way  the  twelve  or  thirteen  inches  of 
rainfall,  characteristic  of  many  semi-arid  regions,  is 
caught  and  held  to  supply  the  moisture  for  the  crop  of  a 
single  season. 

Certain  crops  have  been  bred  up  to  be  adapted  to  the 
dry  farming  system,  among  which  are  the  macaroni 
wheat,  Turkestan  alfalfa,  dwarf  Milo  maize,  and  Swedish 
oats.  At  the  present  time  wheat  is  the  principal  crop  in 
dry  farming. 

Practical  Exercises 

1.  See  Exercise  5,  Lesson  46. 

2.  How  Moisture  is  Saved  by  the  Dry  Earth  Produced  by 
Frequent  Shallow  Cultivation. 

Suspend  a  tin  can  from  each  end  of  a  small  stick  four- 
teen to  sixteen  inches  long  and  balance  over  a  nail  driven 
through  a  hole  at  the  middle  of  the  stick. 


DRY  FARMING  325 

Fill  one  can  full  of  moist  soil  and  the  other  to  within 
about  one  inch  of  the  top  with  a  portion  of  the  same  soil. 
Pour  dry  dust  over  the  surface  of  the  soil  in  the  second 
can  to  the  depth  of  about  an  inch.  Adjust  the  amount 
of  soil  in  the  two  cans  so  that  the  system  exactly  bal- 
ances. Allow  the  apparatus  to  stand  over  night.  The 
amount  of  water  that  must  be  added  to  one  can  to  restore 
a  balance  represents  the  water  that  has  been  saved  by 
the  protective  covering  of  dust — the  dry  earth  mulch. 
Hold  the  bar  horizontally  while  adding  the  water. 

The  effect  of  mulches  of  cut  straw,  leaves,  or  other 
material  may  be  studied  in  the  same  way. 


AUGUST 

On  the  farm. — This  is  the  month  when  the  farmer 
may  take  a  little  vacation,  and  every  farmer  should  leave 
his  farm,  if  possible,  for  a  short  vacation  at  least  once  a 
year.  There  are  plenty  of  things  to  do,  however,  in 
August,  if  the  farmer  wishes  to  find  work.  Perhaps  he  is 
planning  to  sow  an  alfalfa  field,  or  he  may  have  to  break 
his  wheat  ground.  If  the  weather  is  rainy  he  may  have 
to  dig  his  potatoes.  He  will  probably  sow  a  patch  of  tur- 
nips. There  will  be  fence  corners  to  mow  and  clean  out. 
Perhaps  he  may  have  some  melons  or  cucumbers  or  other 
truck  to  market.  Of  course  he  should  help  the  housewife 
to  pick  blackberries,  peaches  or  apples,  for  she  is  very 
busy  at  canning  this  month.  The  teacher  and  pupils 
will  think  of  other  work  going  on  during  August. 

LESSON  XCIII 

ALFALFA 

Essentials  in  growing  alfalfa. — It  is  worth  the  trial 
for  most  farmers  to  begin  the  production  of  alfalfa. 
There  are  a  few  essentials  in  alfalfa  culture  that  are  re- 
quired for  success. 

1.  The  seed  bed  must  be  in  perfect  "onion  tilth." 

2.  The  ground  should  be  inoculated  with  the  bacteria 
necessary  to  produce  the  root-nodules.    This  may  be  done 

326 


ALFALFA 


327 


by  sprinkling  the  soil  of  the  field  with  soil  from  an  old 
alfalfa  or  sweet  clover  field. 

3.  There  must  be  plenty  of  lime  in  the  soil. 

4.  Weeds  must  not  be  allowed  to  choke  out  the  young 
alfalfa  plant. 

5.  The  ground  must  be  well  drained  and  have  a  por- 
ous sub-soil,  for  alfalfa  has  a  long  tap-root  and  must 
grow  deep  into  the  soil. 

6.  The  seed  must  be  pure  and  viable,  and  sown  at  the 
rate  of  25  pounds  per  acre.    With  these  conditions  pro- 
vided alfalfa  may  be  grown  much  more  widely  than  at 
present. 

Practical  Exercises 
1.    An  Alfalfa  Plot  Test 

If  the  required  amount  of  land  cannot  be  obtained  on 
the  school  grounds,  a  farmer  living  near  the  school  will 
probably  be  glad  to  furnish  the  land.  Select  the  site  in 
any  plowed-up  ground,  lay  out  the  following  plats,  each 
one  rod  square : 


3 

1 

INOCULATION 

LIME 

LIME 

4 

2 

INOCULATION 

Drive  stakes  at  each  corner  of  each  plat. 


LESSONS  IN  AORICULTURE 

Sow  about  eight  quarts  of  lime  on  plats  2  and  4,  four 
quarts  on  each  plat,  which  is  equivalent  to  about  twenty 
bushels  on  an  acre.  Obtain  some  soil  from  a  place  where 
alfalfa  or  sweet  clover  is  growing,  and  scatter  a  few 
quarts  of  this  on  plats  3  and  4,  being  careful  not  to  get 
it  on  the  other  plats.  This  is  inoculating  the  soil  with 
the  bacteria  of  the  alfalfa.  Then  sow  a  light  seeding  of 
oats  or  barley  over  all  the  plats,  a  little  more  than  a  quart 
is  sufficient.  Then  sow  about  three-fourths  of  a  pound 
of  alfalfa  over  the  four  plats  and  rake  it  in.  Be  care- 
ful not  to  rake  any  of  the  soil  from  the  inoculated  plats 
into  the  others. 

No  further  care  need  be  given  the  plats  until  the  bar- 
ley or  oats  is  headed  out,  when  it  should  be  mowed  off 
above  the  tops  of  the  alfalfa  plants.  The  oats  or  barley 
should  not  be  allowed  to  mature  in  the  alfalfa.  School 
may  be  closed  before  this  experiment  is  finished ;  but  the 
teacher  should  appoint  a  committee  to  study  and  report 
the  observations  of  the  summer,  and  all  living  near 
should  be  encouraged  to  watch  the  experiment.  This  is 
getting  lessons  from  the  real  source  and  not  from  books 
alone. 

Draw  the  plats  in  the  agricultural  note-books,  and  an- 
swer the  following  questions : 

How  soon  does  the  barley  or  oats  come  up?  The  al- 
falfa? In  six  weeks  observe  the  roots  of  the  alfalfa  in 
each  plat.  In  which  plats  are  swollen  nodules  found  on 
the  alfalfa  roots  V  What  is  the  effect  of  the  lime  and  in- 
oculation? Observe  the  difference  in  growth  in  the  four 
plats. 


BUDDING   FRUIT    TREES  329 

The  surest  way  to  get  alfalfa  to  grow  on  a  poor  soil 
is  to  manure  the  soil,  cultivate  it,  and  sow  about  August 
the  1st,  applying  lime  and  inoculation,  if  necessary. 

This  work  may  be  carried  on  at  the  students'  home  if 
there  are  no  plats  for  it  near  the  school.  The  home  work 
of  these  lessons  is  to  be  greatly  encouraged. 

References:  Alfalfa  Book. — Coburn.  Farmers'  Bulletin,  No. 
215. 

LESSON  XCIV 

BUDDING  FRUIT  TREES 

August  is  the  month  when  young  peach  and  apple  trees 
are  usually  budded. 

Purpose  of  budding. — Budding  is  such  a  simple  and 
important  farm  operation  that  every  boy  and  girl  should 
know  how  to  do  it.  Think  of  changing  the  little  apple- 
trees  in  the  orchard  to  any  variety  of  apples  you  wish! 
This  is  exactly  what  budding  is  for.  This  change  can  be 
made  on  branches  as  small  as  lead  pencils,  or  as  large  as 
the  thumb.  The  nurseryman  buds  the  little  trees  a  few 
inches  above  the  surface  of  the  ground.  The  fruit  grower 
top  buds  the  little  trees,  two  or  three  feet  above  the 
ground. 

And  when,  above  this  apple-tree, 
The  winter  stars  are  quivering  bright 
And  winds  go  howling  through  the  night, 
Girls,  whose  young  eyes  o'erflow  with  mirth, 
Shall  peel  its  fruit  by  cottage-hearth, 

And  guests  in  prouder  homes  shall  see, 
Heaped  with  the  grape  of  Cintra  's  vine 


330 


LESSONS  IX  AGRICULTURE 


And  golden  orange  of  the  line, 
The  fruit  of  the  apple-tree. 

—Bryant. 
Practical  Exercises 
1.    Budding  the  Peach 

The  class  may  go  to  a  young  orchard  near  the  school 
for  this  lesson,  or  several  branches  of  young  trees  may 
be  brought  into  the  schoolroom. 
1.     Choose  the  place  for  the  bud.    Make  a  horizontal 


BUDDINO 

FIG.  101.     BUDDING 

cut  across  the  stem,  just  through  the  bark.  Then  be- 
ginning in  the  middle  of  the  horizontal  cut,  draw  the 
knife  straight  down  making  a  vertical  cut.  (See  figure 
b).  Twist  the  knife  sidewise  before  drawing  it  out,  in 
order  to  loosen  the  bark.  The  stock  is  now  ready  for  the 
bud. 

2.  Take  the  buds  from  bearing  trees  of  the  variety 
you  wish.  Cut  twigs  that  have  grown  this  year.  The 
leaves  are  still  on  them.  At  the  base  of  each  leaf,  and 
between  the  leaf  and  the  branch,  you  will  find  a  little 


NO    TWO    PLANTS    ALIKE  331 

bud.     This  is  the  bud  to  insert  into  the  tree  which  has 
been  prepared  as  above  described. 

3.  Cut  the  leaf  off  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  above 
the  bud,  thus  leaving  the  leaf  stock  as  a  handle  for  the 
bud.    The  end  buds  should  not  be  used.    Beginning  with 
a  sharp  knife  below  the  bud,  cut  upwards  just  through 
the  bark,  beneath  the  bud  and  above  it  about  half  an 
inch.    Be  sure  to  cut  through  the  bark,  but  not  into  the 
wood.     (See  figure  a.) 

4.  Push  the  bud  down  into  the  cut  made  into  the 
stock,  using  the  leaf  stalk  as  a  handle.    Be  sure  that  the 
entire  bud  is  shoved  into  the  incision.    If  a  piece  of  bark 
should  project  above,  cut  it  off.     (See  figure  c). 

5.  The  bud  is  now  ready  for  tying.    Raffia  is  the  best 
material  to  use,  but  ordinary  string  may  be  used.     Be- 
gin below  the  bud  and  wrap  the  wound  entirely,  except 
where  the  bud  is.    Wrap  it  snugly  and  tightly,  and  then 
tie  securely.     (See  figure  d). 

6.  In  two  or  three  weeks  the  bud  will  have  "stuck," 
and  the  string  may  then  be. removed.     The  bud  will  re- 
main dormant  during  the  winter  and  begin  to  grow  the 
next  spring. 

References:     Farmers'  Bulletins,  Nos.  157  and  218. 

LESSON  XCV 
NO  TWO  PLANTS  ALIKE 

Variations  and  resemblance. — It  is  a  common 
observation  of  everybody  that  no  two  things  are  exactly 
alike.  This  is  especially  true  of  plants.  Plants  like  ani- 


332  LESSONS  IN  AGRICULTUBE 

mals,  produce  offspring  which  resemble  the  parents  very 
closely  in  many  respects.  If  it  were  not  for  this  resem- 
blance to  parents  in  plants,  our  crops  would  not  come 
true  to  seed,  and  we  could  not  depend  upon  fixing  de- 
sired characteristics  in  improving  the  crop.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  is  a  good  thing  that  no  two  plants  are  exactly 
alike,  for  the  variation  might  be  an  improvement  over 
the  parent  plant,  and  thus  enable  the  plant  breeder  to 
select  points  for  improvement. 

Practical  Exercises 
1.     Variations  in  the  Corn  Plant 

Select  two  corn  plants  that  most  nearly  resemble  each 
other,  and  note  the  following  points  in  comparison : 

1.  Height  of  the  plant. 

2.  Does  it  branch?     How  many  secondary  stems  or 
suckers  from  one  root? 

3.  Shade  or  color. 

4.  How  many  leaves? 

5.  Arrangement  of  leaves  on  the  stem. 

6.  Measure  length  and  breadth  of  six  main  leaves. 

7.  Number  and  position  of  ears.    Color  of  silks. 

8.  Size  of  tassel,  and  number  and  size  of  its  branches. 

9.  Stage  of  maturity  or  ripeness  of  the  plant. 

10.  Has  the  plant  grown  symmetrically,  or  has  it  been 
crowded  by  other  plants,  or  been  obliged  to  struggle  for 
light  or  room? 

11.  Note  all  the  unusual  marks  or  features. 

12.  Note  the  comparative  vigor. 

These  points  may  be  used  with  any  two  plants  with 
slight  modification. 


WATER    SUPPLY  333 

(Adapted  from  Bailey  in  the  Cornell  Rural  School 
Leaflet. ) 

Reference:     Farmers'  Bulletin,  229. 

LESSON  XCVI 

THE    WATEE    SUPPLY 

We  are  likely  to  have  little  rainfall  in  August  and  our 
attention  is  often  called  to  the  quality  as  well  as  the 
quantity  of  our  water  supply. 

Pure  water. — There  is  nothing  of  more  importance 
to  the  health,  comfort,  and  convenience  of  a  farm  and 
household  than  an  abundant  supply  of  pure  water.  It 
is  not  easy  to  find  absolutely  pure  water.  Some  of  the 
impurities  in  drinking  water  are  harmless;  others  are 
very  injurious.  The  most  dangerous  impurities  in  water 
are  the  minute  plant  forms,  called  bacteria.  One  kind  of 
bacteria  occasionally  found  in  drinking  water,  causes  the 
typhoid  fever.  It  is  impossible  to  judge  by  the  appear- 
ance or  taste,  whether  water  contains  these  dangerous 
bacteria.  It  may  be  perfectly  clear  and  have  the  finest 
taste,  and  yet  be  unsafe  to  drink. 

Sources  of  drinking  water  are:  1.  Springs.  Spring 
water  is  almost  always  pure  if  the  spring  is  deep  and  a 
good  distance  from  foul  places,  such  as  barnyards  and 
open  drains. 

2.  Lakes  and  reservoirs.  Water  supplied  to  cities  is 
often  taken  from  rivers  and  lakes,  and  purified  to  a  cer- 
tain extent  and  stored  in  reservoirs.  If  there  is  any 
doubt  about  the  purity  of  the  city  water,  people  are  ad- 
vised to  boil  it  in  order  to  kill  all  the  dangerous  bacteria. 


334  LESSONS  IN  AGRICULTURE 

3.  Wells.  If  wells  are  on  a  lower  level  than  the  barns 
or  outhouses,  they  are  likely  to  contain  water  with  the 
dangerous  bacteria  in  it.  If  any  surface  water  can  drain 
into  the  well  it  renders  the  water  impure  and  unfit  to 
drink.  The  land  should  not  slope  to  the  well  from  any 
house  or  barn,  and  the  well  cover  should  be  perfectly 
tight  to  prevent  animals  from  getting  into  it. 

Good  rules  for  drinking  water. — 1.  If  there  is  any 
doubt  about  the  purity  of  drinking  water  it  should  be 
boiled. 

2.  Allow  no  standing  water  about  the  farm  premises, 
for  it  may  be  the  source  of  contamination  for  the  drink- 
ing water. 

3.  Do  not  drink  out  of  the  cup  at  public  drinking 
places,  nor  from  the  common  cup  or  dipper  often  used 
in  the  schoolroom,  for  many  disease  germs  are  carried 
from  one  mouth  to  another,  through  the  common  drink- 
ing vessel.     Pupils  should  have  their  own  individual 
drinking  cups. 

4.  Always  have  clean  fresh  water  for  the  farm  ani- 
mals, for  their  health  and  growth  depends  as  much  on 
the  water  supply  as  does  our  own. 

Practical  Exercises 
1.     Simple  Tests  of  Water 

If  this  lesson  is  given  in  a  school  that  has  the  material 
named,  the  following  tests  will  prove  interesting  and  val- 
uable : 

1.    Test  for  animal  or  plant  matter : 
Pill  a  clean  test-tube  half  full  of  the  drinking  water. 
Add  a  drop  or  two  of  concentrated  sulphuric  acid,  and 


UNITED  STATES   WEATHER  SERVICE  335 

sufficient  potassium  permanganate  solution  to  color  the 
water.  Heat  gently  to  the  boiling  point.  If  the  color 
changes  to  a  brownish  tint,  it  indicates  the  presence  of 
organic  matter. 

2.  Test  for  chlorides : 

To  a  test-tube  half  full  of  water,  add  a  few  drops  of 
nitric  acid,  and  then  a  few  drops  of  silver  nitrate  solu- 
tion. If  there  is  any  cloudiness,  it  shows  that  the  water 
had  traces  of  chlorides  in  it. 

3.  Test  for  sulphates : 

To  a  test-tube  half  full  of  water  add  a  few  drops  of 
barium  chloride  solution.  If  there  is  a  whitish  precipitate, 
it  indicates  the  presence  of  sulphates  in  the  water. 

4.  Test  for  lime  compounds: 

To  a  test-tube  half  full  of  water  add  a  few  drops  of 
fresh  solution  of  ammonium  oxalate.  A  white  precipitate 
indicates  the  presence  of  calcium  or  lime  compounds. 

As  a  note-book  record  of  this  lesson,  the  pupils  should 
write  an  essay  on  the  Water  Supply,  bringing  out  the 
facts  they  have  learned,  and  showing  the  attitude  they 
have  toward  the  subject. 

LESSON  XCVII 

THE  UNITED  STATES  WEATHER  SERVICE 

Farmers  dependent  upon  weather. — There  is  no  sub- 
ject of  more  vital  interest  to  the  farmer  than  the  weather. 
Especially  is  this  true  in  the  month  of  August  In  the 
corn  belt  the  condition  of  the  weather  either  makes  or 
mars  the  crop.  As  the  rain  falls  "on  the  just  and  on  the 


336 


LESSONS  IN  AGRICULTURE 


unjust,"  so  does  the  dry  weather  come  to  both  alike,  and 
the  farmer,  to  whatever  class  he  may  belong,  is  more  de- 
pendent upon  the  state  of  the  weather  for  success  in  his 
business,  than  perhaps  upon  any  other  force. 

Weather  reports.  —  The  Department  of  Agriculture, 
through  the  Weather  Service,  has  made  provision  for 


KEY  TO  COLORS 


BLACK 


2  3 

Weather  service  flaps. 


KEY  "TO  COLORS  ->[]wrHTE     ||RED        (BLACK 


FIG.  102. 


Wind  and  storm  signals. 
UNITED  STATES  WEATHER  SIGNALS 


jaily  weather  reports  to  all  parts  of  the  country.  These 
reports  are  sent  out  by  rural  telephones,  by  bulletins  car- 
ried by  the  rural  mail  service,  by  means  of  signal  flags 
of  certain  designs  and  colors,  and  by  steam  whistles 
blown  sufficiently  strong  to  be  heard  some  distance  away. 
The  flags  used  for  this  purpose  are  as  follows : 

No.  1.    White  flag  indicates  clear  and  fair  weather. 

No.  2.    Blue  flag  indicates  rain  or  snow. 


UNITED   STATES   WEATHER   SERVICE  337 

No.  3.  White  and  blue  flag  indicates  local  rain  or 
snow. 

No.  4.     Black  triangular  flag  is  a  temperature  signal. 

No.  5.  "White  flag  with  black  square  in  the  center  in- 
dicates that  a  cold  wave  is  expected. 

When  No.  4  is  placed  above  Nos.  1,  2,  and  3,  warmer 
weather  is  expected;  when  placed  below  these  signals, 
colder  weather  is  expected.  A  red  flag  with  a  black  cen- 
ter indicates  a  storm  of  great  violence.  A  red  pennant 
signifies  an  easterly  wind,  while  a  white  pennant  indi- 
cates a  westerly  wind.  When  either  of  these  pennants 
is  placed  above  other  flags,  it  signifies  a  northern  wind, 
but  when  placed  below,  a  southern  wind  is  promised. 

Practical  Exercises 
1.    Keeping  Weather  Records 

Make  daily  weather  observations  for  one  week  and 
record  your  observations  in  the  following  table  : 

Date      |  Temperature  |'  Moisture  Conditions  |  Sky  Aspect  |  Wind  Direction 


2.    Study  of  the  Weather  Signals 
Ask  your  rural  carrier  to  expose  the  Weather  Service 

Signals  on  his  wagon,  and  keep  a  record  each  day  of 

what  the  signals  indicate.     Note  whether  the  report  is 

correct  or  not. 

Draw  upon  the  blackboard  of  the  school  each  day  the 

flag  shown  by  the  weather  report,  which  foretells  the 

weather  for  the  next  twenty-four  hours. 


338  LESSONS  IN  AORTrULTURE 

LESSON  XCVTIT 

CONSEEVATION  OF  NATUEAL  RESOURCES 

Study  needed. — A  text-book  in  agriculture  would 
fail  in  an  essential  duty  if  it  did  not  call  attention  to  the 
great  need  of  the  conservation  of  our  natural  resources. 
In  a  recent  conference,  Hon.  Gifford  Pinchot  advised  the 
preparation  of  text-books  on  conservation,  and  strongly 
urged  that  the  problem  be  presented  to  the  children  of 
the  public  schools. 

Americans  wasteful. — "We  have  been  concerning  our- 
selves about  every  other  subject  under  the  sun,  while  we 
ate,  drank,  and  made  merry  over  the  abundance  of  our 
natural  resources.  As  a  nation  we  have  wasted  our  sub- 
stance by  riotous  living,  and  now  we  hear  our  President 
sounding  the  alarm  by  saying,  that  the  question  of  the 
conservation  of  our  natural  resources  is  one  of  the  most 
important  problems  before  the  American  people. 

The  natural  resources. — Disregarding  the  question 
of  moral  purposes,  the  prosperity  of  our  people  depends 
directly  upon  the  energy  and  intelligence  with  which  we 
use  the  soil,  the  forests,  the  mines,  and  the  waters  of  the 
earth.  From  the  sea,  the  mine,  the  forest,  and  the  soil, 
must  be  gathered  everything  that  can  sustain  the  life  of 
man.  How  stands  the  inventory  of  our  property  at  the 
beginning  of  the  twentieth  century? 

The  sea  and  forests. — The  sea  furnishes  5  per  cent 
of  our  food  products.  The  forests  are  fast  disappearing. 
We  are  consuming  wood  three  times  faster  than  the  for- 


CONSERVATION  NATURAL  RESOURCES     339 

ests  grow,  and  without  reforestation,  the  present  century 
will  see  the  end  of  our  timber. 

The  mines. — The  mines  of  coal,  oil,  and  gas  are  in- 
capable of  restoration.  The  wealth  of  these  resources  can 
be  used  only  once.  When  fuel  becomes  scarce,  as  far  as 
we  can  now  foresee,  man  will  suffer  as  he  would  if  the 
air  were  gradually  withdrawn.  One  has  only  casually  to 
observe  to  note  the  great  waste  of  coal,  oil,  and  gas  that 
is  continually  going  on  unchecked. 

The  soil. — Our  greatest  source  of  wealth  is  the  land 
— the  soil.  How  are  we  caring  for  it?  The  last  census 
shows  that  the  average  annual  product  per  acre  of  the 
whole  country  was  $11.38,  a  little  more  than  a  respectable 
rental  in  some  places,  where  the  land  is  well  cared  for. 
We  are  robbing  the  soil  in  order  to  get  the  largest  re- 
turns in  the  shortest  time.  We  have  done  this  in  two 
ways — by  single  cropping  and  by  neglect  of  fertilization. 
We  need  the  intelligent  treatment  of  smaller  areas,  rais- 
ing the  productivity  to  three  or  four  times  the  present 
rate.  Thirty-six  per  cent  of  our  people  live  directly  by 
agriculture,  and  the  rest  depend  upon  it.  We  shall  have 
200  million  people  here  by  1950.  How  shall  they  be 

clothed  and  wherewithal  shall  they  be  fed? 

Time  was  when  the  son  of  the  farmer  could  go  West, 
when  his  father's  farm  was  run  down,  now  all  this  is 
changed.  The  son  of  the  farmer,  if  he  follows  his 
father's  vocation,  must  make  his  living  dn  his  father's 
farm.  This  can  be  done,  if  the  father  exercises  wisdom. 
No  wise  use  of  the  soil  exhausts  its  fertility. 

Ignorance  and  selfishness. — And,  finally,  the  great- 


340  LESSONS  IN  AGRICULTURE 

est  waste  of  resources  is  the  loss  that  comes  to  all  our 
material  development,  through  ignorant  minds  and  un- 
skilled hands.  It  is  the  old  curse  of  ignorance  together 
with  the  primal  sin  of  selfishness  that  has  led  to  the  waste 
of  the  world 's  substance. 


LESSON  XCIX 

AGRICULTURE  AND  EDUCATION 

Educational  value. — The  boys  and  girls  who  have 
been  studying  these  pages  and  the  plants  and  animals 
of  the  farm  to  which  we  have  constantly  referred  them, 
may  be  sure  that  they  have  not  been  neglecting  their 
education  in  this  study  of  agriculture.  We  have  seen 
that  the  science  of  agriculture  deals  not  only  with  the 
common  things  and  processes  of  everyday  life  in  the 
country,  but  that  it  reaches  out  and  touches  all  the  great 
branches  of  science  and  learning.  In  all  that  goes  to 
give  one  a  modern  education  of  culture,  agriculture  plays 
a  large  and  efficient  part. 

Practical  value. — Agriculture  has  also  its  practical 
value  as  a  school  subject,  in  that  its  study  enables  the 
farmer  to  gain  larger  profits  in  his  business.  This  value 
may  not  be  realized  at  once  by  the  boys  and  girls  in 
the  public  schools,  but  in  the  extension  schools  and  in 
the  short  courses  at  the  colleges  of  agriculture,  the 
profitableness  of  studying  agriculture  is  often  concrete 
and  immediate. 

An  actual  saving  of  over  $1,000  in  horse  feed  resulted 
from  the  information  gained  by  a  prominent  business 


AGRICULTURE  AND  EDUCATION  341 

man  and  farmer  of  Salem,  Ore.,  in  the  winter  short 
course  at  the  Oregon  Agricultural  College.  Last  year 
he  came  himself  to  the  college,  and  this  year,  being 
unable  to  attend,  sent  his  ranch  foreman.  The  knowl- 
edge gained  in  the  course  on  feeding  of  horses  alone 
netted  him  a  saving  of  over  $1,000  in  his  feed  bills,  and 
his  animals  are  in  finer  condition,  he  says,  than  ever  be- 
fore. Here  is  another  concrete  illustration  of  the  value 
of  scientific  agricultural  information. 

Moral  value. — The  study  of  agriculture  in  the 
school  and  on  the  farm  cannot  help  but  make  us  better 
men  and  women.  The  boys  and  girls  who  love  and  care 
for  plants  and  animals,  surely  cannot  think  or  do  as 
evil  things  as  those  who  do  not  care  for  them.  There 
is  so  much  to  learn,  so  much  suffering  and  inconvenience 
because  of  ignorance,  and  so  much  service  to  be  done, 
that  the  world  is  looking  to  the  boys  and  girls  in  the 
public  schools,  who  are  learning  how  to  think  and  to  do 
things,  to  render  the  greatest  service  for  country  life. 

It  remains  for  you,  teachers  and  pupils,  who  love  the 
country  life  and  desire  its  best  interests,  in  the  spirit 
and  intelligence  with  which  you  have  pursued  these 
lessons,  to  go  forth  as  leaders,  where  leadership  is  so 
much  needed — in  the  open  country.  Be  leaders  in  the 
grange.  Be  leaders  in  boys'  and  girls'  clubs.  Be  lead- 
ers in  country  school  and  church.  Uphold  and  advance 
every  movement  that  will  bring  larger  measures  of  jus- 
tice and  education  to  the  farmer  and  his  family. 


342  LESSONS  IX  AGRICULTURE 

LESSON  C 

THE   FAEM   HOME 

Home  industries. — Our  lessons  in  agriculture  would 
not  do  justice  to  rural  life  if  we  did  not  refer  to  the 
country  home  and  its  works  and  influence.  The  devel- 
opment -of  the  material  and  industrial  side  of  the  home 
life  has  not  kept  pace  with  the  progress  of  men's  work 
on  the  outside.  Many  of  the  industries  of  the  early 
homes  have  been  wisely  taken  from  them  and  given  over 
to  the  factories  and  shops.  Two  industries  yet  remain — 
cooking  and  cleaning.  These  are  not  much  further  ad- 
vanced in  their  development  than  they  were  a  thou- 
sand years  ago.  The  time  may  come — it  is  to  be  hoped 
that  it  will,  when  women  of  the  home  will  be  relieved 
from  most  of  the  drudgery  of  cleaning  and  cooking, 
and  these  industries  be  turned  over  to  specialists  who 
will  do  them  better  and  cheaper  than  they  are  now  done, 
and  that  the  home  may  become  a  place  of  rest  and 
culture  for  the  lives  within.  It  will  be  long  years  be- 
fore such  ideals  can  be  realized  in  the  country,  yet  much 
can  be  done  in  the  country  home  to  lighten  the  labors 
of  the  mother,  and  enlighten  the  members  of  the  house- 
hold. 

Some  conditions  making  for  the  betterment  of  the 
farm  home: 

1.  Beautiful  natural  surroundings,  as  brought  out 
in  a  former  lesson. 

2.  Absolute  cleanliness  from  cellar  to  garret. 

3.  The   absence   of  all   carpets,   lace   curtains,    and 


FARM    HOME  343 

bric-a-brac,  and  their  places  supplied  with  smooth,  hard- 
wood finish  of  window  and  door  casings;  hardwood, 
waxed  floors;  and  furniture  of  plain,  uncarved,  smooth 
type. 

4.  Few    pictures,    well    selected,    in    plain,    modest 
frames,  placed  upon  walls  of  restful  tints. 

5.  Good  books,  daily  papers,  magazines,  and  farm 
journals  in  the  library. 

6.  Musical  instruments  and  members  of  the  family 
who  can  appreciate  good  music. 

7.  Ample,  shady  porches,  screened  doors  and  win- 
dows, and  well  ventilated  rooms. 

8.  Pure,  clean  food,  well  prepared  and  cooked,  and 
cool,  clean  kitchen  and  dining  rooms  in  which  to  pre- 
pare and  eat  the  meals. 

9.  A  bathroom  with  hot  and  cold  water  supplied. 

10.  A  telephone  and  rural  free  mail  service. 

11.  All  the  labor-saving  machines  that  can  be  af- 
forded. 

12.  Good  roads,  good  schools,  good  churches,  good 
markets  available,  and  good  people  to  live  in  the  homes. 

A  stronger  and  better  country  home! — That  is  what 
we  want.  That  is  what  we  must  have.  The  "New 
Earth"  that  is  coming,  will  bring  its  rural  homes  of 
good  cheer,  of  culture  and  education.  In  these  homes 
will  be  strong  men,  sensible  women,  and  happy  children. 
Love  will  be  law  and  wisdom  chief  ruler,  and  the  child 
that  is  born  in  them  is  sure  of  all  that  the  highest 
thought  can  secure  for  him  in  body,  soul  and  spirit. 

This  is  the  stronger  home,  and  in  that  home  must  be 


344  LESSONS  IN  AGRICULTURE 

seen  all  the  graces  and  gentleness  in  thought  and  word 
that  make  the  happy  illumination  which,  on  the  inside 
of  the  house,  correspond  to  morning  sunlight  outside, 
falling  on  quiet  dewy  fields.  Out  of  such  homes  nei- 
ther knaves  in  politics,  nor  tyrants  in  business  competi- 
tion can  ever  come.  With  such  homes,  the  golden  age 
already  dawning  as  the  new  century  opens  hastens  its 
steps. 

And  for  the  woman  in  that  home : 
"A  woman,  in  so  far  as  she  beholdeth 

Her  one  Beloved 's  face ; 
A  mother — with  a  great  heart  that  enfoldeth 

The  children  of  the  race; 
A  body  free  and  strong,  with  that  high  beauty 

That  comes  of  perfect  use  is  built  thereof ; 
A  mind  where  reason  ruleth  over  duty, 

And  justice  reigns  with  love; 
A  self-poised,  royal  soul,  brave,  wise,  and  tender, 

No  longer  blind  and  dumb ; 
A  human  being  of  unknown  splendor, 
Is  she  who  is  to  come. ' ' 


in 

m 

I 


X 

o 

m 


APPENDIX  NOTES  345 

APPENDIX  NOTES 

Suggestive  List  of  Materials  and  Equipment  Needed  in  Using 
This  Book 

1.  Three  boxes  of  soil,  one  each  of  clay,  sand,  and 
humus  loam. 

2.  One  dozen  Mason  pint  fruit  jars. 

3.  One  dozen  tumblers. 

4.  Four  lamp  chimneys. 

5.  Sach's  plant  food  tablets. 

6.  Samples  of  commercial  fertilizers. 

7.  One-half  dozen  wide-mouth  bottles. 

8.  Germination  test  box. 

9.  A  fifty-foot  tape  line. 

10.  Hoe,  spade,  rake,  axe,  etc. 

11.  One  pint  of  formaldehyde. 

12.  One  spray  pump. 

13.  Five  gallons  of  lime-sulphur  spray  material. 

14.  Resin,  beeswax,  and  tallow  or  linseed  oil. 

15.  A  pruning  knife  and  saw. 

16.  An  insect  cage. 

17.  A  Babcock  tester. 

18.  One  dozen  test  tubes. 

19.  One    pound     of    potassium    cyanide     (deadly 
poison). 

20.  Window  boxes. 

21.  A  set  of  economic  seeds. 

22.  Kitchen  scales,  weighing  to  twenty-four  pounds. 

23.  Vessels  for  dry  measure. 

24.  Bricker's  drainage  apparatus. 

25.  Animals  and  plants   easily  supplied  from  the 
farms. 


346  LESSONS  IN  AGBICULTURE 

Cornell  University  Score-Card  for  Farms 


Standard 


Students' 
Score 


1.  Kind  of  Farming — 

Adaptation    as    affecting    value    [  3 

2.  Size — 

As  adapted  to  kind  of  farming  to  be  used..  2 

3.  Shape — 

As   affecting   shape   of   fields 

As   affecting   nearness   of    farmstead 3 

4.  Topography — 

As    affecting    production     

As    affecting    ease    of    cultivation 3 

As  affecting   loss   of    soil    fertility ....'. 2 

5.  Fertility — 

Natural      15 

Condition     5 

6.  Physical  Properties — 

As   affecting   economy    of    cultivation 

As  affecting  number  of  days  of  labor 1 

AB  affecting  loss  of  soil   fertility 2 

7.  Drainage — 

Natural     or    artificial 5 

8.  Condition — 

Freedom    from    stumps,    stones,    weeds,    waste 

land,    etc 3 

9.  Climate — 

As   affecting   production    of    live   stock 

As   affecting  number   of  days   of   labor 2 

10.  Healthfulness — 

As    an    economic    factor 5 

11.  Water-supply — 

Running   water    and    wells    5 

12.  Location — 

Local     markets     

Neighbors     5 

Shipping    facilities    

Roadways     5 

13.  Improvements — 

Location    of   farmstead    8 

House    as  adapted    to    farm    needs 5 

Other   buildings   as   adapted    to   size   of    farm 

and   kind    of   farming    

Fences,    character,    condition,    arrangement.  .  2 

14.  Timber,   orchards,    vineyards,    etc 

Total  100 


The  above  score  card,  worked  out  for  the  pupils' 
home  farms,  would  make  valuable  lessons  in  Elementary 
Agriculture. 


DIAGRAMS 


347 


DIAGRAM  OF  Cow 

1.  Muzzle;  2,  Nostrils;  3,  Face;  4,  Fore-head;  5,  Cheek;  6,  Jaw; 
7,  Neck;  8,  Withers;  9,  Back;  10,  Loin;  11,  Pinbone;  12,  Rump;  13, 
Hips;  14,  Tail;  15,  Chest;  16,  Brisket;  17,  Throat;  18,  Shoulder;  19-20, 
Fore  Arm;  21,  Knee;  22,  Pastern;  23,  Foot;  24,  Chest;  25,  Ribs; 
26,  Belly;  27,  Flank;  28,  Milk  Veins;  29,  Udder;  30,  Quarters;  31,  Thigh; 
32,  Escutcheon;  33,  Cannon;  34,  Fetlock. 


19 


DIAGRAM  OF  SHEEP 


1,  Face;  2,  Muzzle;  3,  Nostrils;  4,  Eye;  5,  Neck;  6,  Top  of  Shoulder; 
7,  Cheek;  8,  Back;  9,  Loin;  10,  Twist;  11,  Rump;  12,  Dock;  13,  Brisket; 
14,  Cannon;  15,  Fore-leg;  16.  Shoulder;  17,  Knee;  18,  Foot;  19,  Toe; 
20,  Fore  flank;  21,  Ribs;  22,  Belly;  23,  Flank;  24,  Hip;  26,  Leg. 


LESSONS  IN  AGRICULTURE 


1,  Comb. 

2,  Beak. 

3,  Wattles. 

4,  Lobes. 

5,  Neck. 

6,  Body  and   Fluff. 

7,  Back. 

8-9,   Tall   Coverts. 

10,  Tail  Primaries. 

11,  Tall  Fluff. 
12-13,  Wing  Coverts. 

14,  Wing  Primaries. 

15,  Breast. 

16,  Thigh. 

17,  Heel. 

18,  Tarsus. 

19,  Spur. 

20,  Toes. 


DIAGRAM  OF  CHICKEN 


-I 


DIAGRAM  OF  HORSE 

1,  Neck.  2,  Withers;  3.  Back;  4,  Loin:  5.  Hip;  6,  Dock;  7.  Throat; 
8,  Shoulder;  9,  Breast;  10.  Fore-arm;  11.  Arm;  12.  Wart  (x);  13.  Knee: 
14,  Cannon-bone;  15.  Fetlock;  16,  Pastern;  17.'  Hoof;  18.  Toe;  19.  Chest; 
20.  Ribs;  21.  Belly:  22.  Flanks;  24,  Oaskin;  25.  Quarters:  26.  Stifle; 
27,  Thigh;  28,  Hocks. 


INDEX 


Accounts,  farm,  118. 
Agricultural   outlook,   129  ; 

products,   126  ; 

societies,  172. 

Agriculture    and    education.    340. 
Alfalfa,   309,   326. 
Animals,  farm,  67. 
April  on  the  farm,  226. 
Apples,  57,   59,  60,  63,  221,   259: 

judging,   62. 

Arsenate  of  lead,  41,  259. 
Ash  in  food,  106. 

Assessment   of  farm    values,    127. 
August  on   the  farm,   326. 
Automobiles,  132. 

Babcock  test,  107. 
Bacteria,  103,  105,  209. 
Beautiful  home  grounds,  244. 
Beetles,    39. 
Bees,   37. 
Birds,  303. 
Bird  boxes,  305. 
Books,  farmers',   133. 
Bordeaux  mixture,   41. 
Boys'   corn   clubs,    172,   269. 
Bugs,   34. 

Buildings,  farm,  17. 
Budding   fruit   trees,    329. 
Butter,    100,    103. 
Butterflies,    30. 

Cabbage,  243. 

Carbo-hydrates,  92. 

Carbon,    144. 

Catalpa,   253,   254. 

Celery,   243. 

Clover,  208,  309. 

Conservation  of  natural  resources, 

338. 

Codling   moth,   259,   261. 
Corn   contests,   265. 
Corn,   best,  55 ; 

testing   seed,    197  ; 

selecting  and  storing,   49 ; 

judging  and  scoring,    191 ; 

planting,    263  : 

cultivating,  267  ; 
Crop   records,   122  ; 

rotation,   123,   213. 
Crops,  classification,   65. 


cover,    213 ; 

farm,  65. 

Cotton  seed  meal,  95. 
Cow,  beef,  81  ; 

dairy,  78. 

Country   life  conveniences,   131. 
Cucumbers,   242,   243. 
Cultivators,  268. 
Cuttings,   229. 

Dairy,  100,  78 ;  cow,  78. 

barn,  103. 

December  on    the  farm,   117. 
Diagram  of  forty-acre  farm,  16. 
Drainage,  158. 
Dragon  flies,  36. 
Dry  matter,  95. 

Ear-to-row  plot  for  corn,   265. 

Eggs,   116. 

Embryo,    182. 

Excursion  to  the  woods,  256. 

Farm,  accounts,   118  ; 

books,    133  ; 

buildings,  17; 

crops,  05  ; 

forty  acre,  13 ; 

home,  342; 

machinery,  127  ; 

selecting,  13. 
Farming,   dry,   333. 
Fats,  as  food,  93. 
Feathers,  114. 

February    on    the   farm,    158. 
Feeds  and  feeding,  91. 
Fences,    162. 

Fertilizers,   148,   149,   154. 
Flies,  32  ;  dragon,  36. 
Flowers,   288. 
Food  compounds,  94. 
Forestry,   249. 
Forty-acre  farm,    13. 
Fruit,  growing,  57,  129  ; 

trees,  221,  226,  329. 
Fungous   diseases,   42,   259. 
Fungicides,    41. 

Gardening,   home,   238  ; 
school,  234  ; 
landscape,  245. 


349 


350 


INDEX 


Girls'  tomato  clubs.  283. 
Grafting,   226: 

wax,   228. 
Grange,   177. 
Gnipe  cuttings.   231. 
Grasses.  ::i'n.  ::i>i 
Grasshoppers.    27. 
Grazing,    120. 

Hay.  alfalfa.  310. 

clover.   3O'.i  : 

timothy,  318. 
Hens,  111,  112. 
Hogs,  80. 
Homo,  farm,  342  ; 

gardening.    238 ; 

grounds.  244. 
Horse,  draft,  74. 

driving.  70. 
Horses'   plea.   77. 
Hot-bed,    1ti7. 
H'linus.    13«>. 
Hydrogen,    144. 

Insects,  24,  303. 
Insecticides,  41.  219. 
Improvement,  lines  of.  312. 
Iron,  plant  food,  144. 

January  on  the  farm.  130. 

Jersey  cattle,  78. 

July   on   the  farm,   314. 

Kentucky  blue  grass.  96.  321. 
Kerosene  emulsion.  41.  22n. 
Knot-tying,  165. 

Laboratory  equipment,   345. 

Larva,  25. 

Layering,   232. 

Lead  arsenate,  41,  259. 

Legumes,  208. 

Lettuce,    243. 

Lime,    152,    326. 

Listing  corn,  264. 

Machinery,  farm,   127. 
Magnesium,  plant  food.  144. 
Manures.  150,   153.  l.lt;. 
Map  Studies  of  life  a-fleld,  22. 
March  on  the  farm.  181. 
May  on   the  farm,  267. 
Meadows.    320. 
Melons,   240,   24.",. 
.Milk,  caring  for.  101  : 

composition  of,  104  : 

testing.   107. 
Modern    farm-home    conveniences. 

343. 

Mulch,  dust,  141. 
Muriate  of  potash,  152. 

Natural   resources.  338. 
Nitrate  of  soda,  150. 


Nitrogen.    144.    150.    209. 
November  on  the  I'H rni.  ti7. 
Nut    crops,    lit 
Nutrients.    !Mi. 
Nutritive   ratio,   93,  Ji.'i. 

Onts.    treatment   of,   43. 
October  on   the  farm,  49. 
Onions,   243. 
Orchards,  extension  of.  57  ; 

planting.  58 ; 

renewing,  222. 
Out-of-door  school.  22. 
Oxygen,   144. 

Paris  green.  41. 

1'astures.    .'{21. 

Patrons  of  husbandry,  178. 

Peaches.  59,  61,  221,  330. 

Peas.  243. 

Pecans,  64. 

Perennials,  247,  295,  296. 

Phosphorus,  144,  151. 

Pistil,   289,    290. 

Plant   diseases,   42 ; 

foods,   143; 

leaves,  286  ; 

propagation,  229. 
Plants  and   water,  201. 
Potatoes,    279. 
Poultry.  110. 
Products,  farm,  56. 
Protein,   92,   93. 
Pruning  trees,  221. 

1*1  ma       *^L\ 


Radishes,  243. 
Raspberries,   L'.'IJ. 
Rations,  balanced,  92  ; 

determining,  95. 
References,  list  of,  170. 
Roads  and  road-making.  169,  314. 
Root    systems,    205. 
Root   hairs.   206. 
Rotation  of  crops.  213.  21  ». 
Rural    mall    delivery.    1  •'•'.'. 
Rural   progress,   132. 

Sample  letter  for  bulletins,  172. 
San  Jose  scale.  217. 
School,  gardening,  238 ; 

grounds,    244  : 

out-of-door,  22. 
Score  card,  cattle,  80,  82 ; 

corn.  193  ; 

farm,  346 ; 

hogs,   87 : 

horses,   73 ; 

sheep,  85. 

Seedlings,  growth  of,  185. 
Seeds,  structure,   181  : 

germination  of,  185  ; 

testing,  197. 
Separator,  cream.   100. 


INDEX 


351 


September  on  the  farm,  14. 
Shi-op,    s::. 
Shrubs,   247. 
Siios.    17,    21. 
Sodium  nitrate,  150. 
Soil,  capillarity  In,   140; 

elements   of,    135,    150. 

tillage,   272. 

Spray,  lime-sulphur,  41,  217,  259. 
Spraying  for  scale,   217  ; 

for  codling  moth,  259  ; 

for  fungous   disease,   259. 
Stamen,  289,  290. 
Starch,  as  food  compound,  94. 
Stock,  on  the  farm,  67  ; 

pure  bred,  69. 
Stomata,  287. 
Stooling,  47. 

Sugar,  as  food  compound,  94. 
Suggestions  to  teachers,  7. 
Sulphur.   144. 
Sweet   Potatoes,   243. 

Toad,   the  farmer's  friend,  306. 
Tomato    clubs,    283. 


Tomatoes,   243.   283. 
Transpiration.  288. 
Transplanting,  277. 
Tree   planting,   248,   255. 
Truck  crops,   130,   299. 

Vegetables,  243. 
Variations,  331,  332. 

Walnuts,    English,   64. 
Water,  supply,  333  ; 

in  farm  crops,   204  ; 

and  the  plant,  201. 
Weather  service,  335. 
Weeds,  295. 

Weights,  for  bushel,  189. 
Wheat,   composition  of  the  plant 
146; 

crop,  44. 
Wood,  lots,  252  ; 

usage,  249. 
Wool,  83,  85. 
Work  shop,  17. 

Year's  account,  121. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA,  LOS  ANGELES 

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